hutan

hutan gundul, lubuk sutam menangais...
sperti kita ketahui akhir-akhir ini, bahwa perambahan hutan yang berda di lubu sutam terus merajalela, akibatnya terjadi bencana alam seperti;banjir longsor, dan kebaran....

perambahan hutan btg lubu sutam

Sosa yang kini telah menjadi tiga kecamatan terancam ditimpa bencana seperti Wasior akibat hutan alam di kaki Bukit Barisan telah dirusak
Perambahan hutan di kaki Bukit Barisan, tepatnya wilayah desa Tamiang dan Tanjung Baru Kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam serta desa Mondang Kecamatan Sosa berlangsung dua tahun terakhir. Ini merupakan masalah besar bagi masyarakat di Kecamatan Sosa, Kecamatan Batang Lb. Sutam dan Kecamatan Htr. Tinggi.
Hutan di kawasan tersebut dirambah pengusaha kayu dari Padang Sidimpuan berintial ELH yang awalnya ilegal. Tetapi bermodalkan kerjasama Koperasi Sutam Bersatu dengan dalih pembukaan perkebunan karet, pengusaha tersebut berhasil mendapatkan legalitas perizinan dari Pemkab Padang Lawas. Ini artinya untuk memenuhi kepentingan sekelompok orang, pihak penerbit izin tutup mata dengan dampak perambahan hutan terhadap lingkungan hidup puluhan ribu jiwa penduduk di tiga kecamatan.
Untuk itu masyarakat Kecamatan Sosa, Kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam dan Kecamatan Htr. Tinggi telah menyampaikan keberatan melalui surat tertanggal 2 Agustus 2010 ditujukan kepada Bupati Padang Lawas dan tembusan kepada Muspida Plus berikut instansi terkait. Keresahan masyarakat ini karena menyadari dampak dari perusakan hutan alam di kaki Bukit Barisan terhadap kehidupan makhluk di tiga kawasan tersebut.
Menyahuti surat keberatan tersebut, DPRD Padang Lawas melalui timnya memutuskan melakukan peninjauan langsung lokasi sampai dua kali dan terakhir (ketiga kali) peninjauan pada 5 sampai 6 Oktober 2010. Alih-alih menghentikan aksi perambahan hutan pasca peninjauan tersebut, Ketua DPRD Kabupaten Padang Lawas terkesan mendukung perambahan hutan tersebut untuk dilanjutkan.
Dukungan itu tertuang dalam surat Nomor 170/746/DPRD/2010 tertanggal 12 Oktober 2010 yang ditujukannya kepada Bupati Padang Lawas yang menyampaikan tiga poin permintaan kepada bupati. Poin pertama permintaan itu berbunyi agar bupati menugaskan instansi terkait untuk menyelesaikan seluruh perizinan tentang pembukaan perkebunan karet oleh Koperasi Sutam Bersatu.
Poin kedua adalah agar Bupati Padang Lawas memberitahukan kepada Koperasi Sutam Bersatu apabila nantinya Koperasi Sutam Bersatu akan mengadakan kerjasama dengan pihak lain dalam hal pemanfaatan kayu dan pembukaan lahan dalam perjanjian harus diketahui oleh pemerintah daerah dan DPRD Kabupaten Padang Lawas. Sedangkan poin ketiga adalah apabila sudah ada perjanjian yang sudah diikat Koperasi Sutam Bersatu dengan pihak lai agar ditinjau kembali perjanjian tersebut.
Secara de facto, surat Ketua DPRD Padang Lawas itu nyata-nyata merupakan rekomendasi bagi pihak-pihak di lapangan agar terus melakukan penebangan kayu dengan dalih pembukaan lahan perkebunan, walau itu hanya kepentingan sekelompok orang. Padahal dipastikan dampak dan mudharat yang timbul secepatnya akan terjadi seperti datangnya bencana alam berupa banjir dan tanah longsor seperti yang baru saja menimpa daerah Wasior, Irian Jaya.
Jika bencana yang baru saja menimpa warga di Wasior terjadi akibat kondisi hutan di kawasan tersebut rusak yang diduga akibat ulah tangan manusia. Sosa yang kini telah menjadi tiga kecamatan juga terancam ditimpa bencana seperti Wasior akibat hutan alam di kaki Bukit Barisan telah dirusak penjarah kayu berkedok pembukaan lahan perkebunan untuk sekolompok warga. Itu artinya Sosa dan sekitarnya tersebut terancam menjadi Wasior II, dilanda banjir dan tanah longsor yang bisa dipastikan akan menelan korban jiwa manusia dan harta benda yang tidak terhitung nilainya nanti.
Bukan Tupoksi DPRD
Ditinjau dari aspek tugas, pokok dan fungsi (tupoksi) DPRD sebagai wakil rakyat, merekomendasi perambahan hutan seperti halnya yang dilakukan Ketua DPRD Kabupaten Padang Lawas itu, apapun alasannya tidaklah tepat. Apalagi penebangan/pengambilan kayu dengan dalih pembukaan perkebunan untuk sekelompok orang sangat bertentangan dengan tugas DPRD yang seharusnya berperan sebagai lembaga pengawasan.
Yang tepat adalah mengupayakan kebijakan yang tidak berpihak terhadap rakyat untuk dihentikan yang menjadi tugas DPRD termasuk mengultimatum berhentinya perambahan hutan. Menghentikan perambahan hutan yang seharusnya dilakukan DPRD karena perambahan hutan termasuk yang legal, jelas-jelas akan berdampak buruk terhadap lingkungan hidup. Perambahan hutan adalah pekerjaan yang sangat merusak tata lingkungan dan pasti berbuah bencana yang memusnahkan kehidupan tidak saja makhluk seperti hewan dan tetumbuhan dari berbagai jenisnya tetapi juga kehidupan manusia di sekitarnya.
Untuk itu penulis sebagai putra kelahiran Kecamatan Sosa, Kabupaten Padang Lawas meminta baik Bupati Basyrah Lubis, Wakil Bupati H. Tongku Ali Sutan Harahap (TSO) dan terutama pihak DPRD untuk secepatnya mengambil langkah-langkah tepat untuk menghentikan aksi perambahan hutan di kaki Bukit Barisan sebagaimana telah menjadi kesepakatan masyarakat Sosa dan sekitar untuk meminta dihentikannya perambahan tersebut melalui surat keberatan tertanggal 2 Agustus 2010 yang lalu.
Perlu juga ditegaskan bahwa pembukaan lahan perkebunan oleh Koperasi Sutam Bersatu sebenarnya merupakan dalih untuk terus melakukan perambahan hutan di sekitar desa Tamiang dan Tanjung Baru Kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam dan desa Mondang, Kecamatan Sosa, Kabupaten Padang Lawas. Jikapun pembukaan perkebunan itu nantinya terealisasi di lapangan, yakinlah mudharat (dampak buruk)-nya lebih besar dari manfaatnya bagi masyarakat.
Bupati dan Wakil Bupati Padang Lawas berikut DPRD harus menyadari bahwa Lingkungan Hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda, daya, keadaan dan makhluk hidup termasuk paling utama di dalamnya manusia dan perilakunya yang mempengaruhi alam itu sendiri, kelangsungan prikehidupan dan kesejahteraan manusia serta makhluk hidup lain.
Demikian juga perlindungan dan pengelolaan hidup di Kabupaten Padang Lawas adalah upaya sistimatis dan terpadu yang dilakukan untuk melestarikan fungsi lingkungan hidup dan mencegah terjadinya pencemaran dan pengrusakan sendir-sendi lingkungan hidup terutama hutan meliputi perilaku pencemaran, pemanfaatan, pengendalian, pemeliharaan dan pengawasan sebagai upaya penegakan supremasi hukum yang mutlak perlu dilakukan sesuai dengan hukum tata lingkungan.
Hal di atas bertujuan agar terpuruknya lingkungan hidup di Kabupaten Padang Lawas adalah akibat dari perilaku perusakan hutan sebagai sendi-sendi lingkungan hidup itu sendiri yang seharusnya dipelihara dan dilestarikan. Semakin anjloknya kualitas lingkungan hidup di daerah ini sebenarnya telah mengancam kelangsungan perikehidupan manusia dan makhluk lainnya. Sehingga mutlak perlu dilakukan perlindungan dan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup yang sungguh-sungguh dan konsisten oleh semua elemen masyarakat melalui power pemerintah dan wakil rakyat.
Harapan penulis, Bupati Padang Lawas/Wakil Bupati berikut DPRD setempat untuk berpikir jernih dan objektif menyikapi aksi perambahan hutan alam di kaki Bukit Barisan sebagai prilaku yang akan merusak alam yang cepat atau lambat akan membuahkan bencana alam melanda kawasan penduduk dan lingkungan hidup makhluk lainnya. Aksi pengrusakan alam melalui prilaku perambahan hutan di Batang Lubu Sutam dan Sosa harus dihentikan secepatnya jika tidak ingin Sosa dan sekitarnya menjadi Wasior II nantinya. Semoga. ***** (Balyan Kadir Nasution : Penulis adalah Wartawan Harian Waspada, peserta Workshop-Seminar “Media And Local Government: Corruption And Acces To Information” di Davao City, Filiphina, tahun 2003 )
riday, 15 October 2010 08:01




Hutan Batang Lubu dirambah

Warta

WASPADA ONLINE

SIBUHUAN - Perusakan hutan di wilayah Kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, Kabupaten Padanglawas yang berkedok pembukaan perkebunan untuk rakyat perlu tindakan tegas, baik dari pihak pemerintah sendiri maupun aparat penegak hukum.

Demikian dikatakan Ketua DPD PKS Kabupaten Padanglawas, M. Puli Parisan Lubis, pagi ini.

Disebutkannya, warga sekitar perambahan hutan yang awalnya disebutkan guna lokasi rencana pembukaan perkebunan di wilayah Kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam, sudah banyak mengeluh.

Hal itu menyusul kehawatiran masyarakat terhadap dampak yang akan diakibatkan perusakan hutan itu ke depan. Karena mungkin beberapa tahun ke depan bukan tidak mungkin peristiwa bencana alam Wasior bisa terulang dan terjadi di wilayah Kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam.

Sekarang, menurut informasi izin usaha perkebunan masih dalam proses, tetapi penebangan kayu dan pengrusakan hutan semakin menjadi dengan alasan untuk membuka kebun untuk rakyat.

Sebelumnya menurut keterangan dari Dinas kehutanan dan Perkebunan Daerah Padanglawas, dasar dikeluarkannya IPK atas nama Salim K Ahmad di kawasan hutan Desa Tanjung Baru, Kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam itu untuk pembukaan perkebunan kelapa sawit, dengan bapak angkat PTPN IV.

Namun setelah PTPN IV meninjau lapangan ternyata lokasi memiliki kemiringan dan kecuraman yang tidak layak untuk dibuka perkebunan kelapa sawit. Hal itu sesuai penyataan PTPN IV, lokasi itu tidak memiliki kelayakan untuk pembukaan perkebunan kelapa sawit.

Editor: SASTROY BANGUN
(dat04/wol/wsp)
elestarian hutan register 8 harus dijaga



Pemerintah Kabupaten dan DPRD diminta ikut menjaga kelestarian hutan register 8 di kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam. Halk itu diharapkan menyusul mencuatnya kasus perambahan hutan di wilayah Padang Lawas, termasuk kawasan hutan register 8.

�Apalagi register 8 itu merupakan kawasan hutan lindung, harus dijaga kelestariannya,� kata ketua Komisi B DPRD Palas, M Ayunan Hasibuan, tadi malam.

Menurutnya, jika kawasan hutan register 8 di wilayah kecamatan Batang Lubu Sutam itu adalah hutan lindung, maka harus dijaga kelestariannya. Termasuk dari tangan-tangan cukong atau pengusaha kayu illegal, apalagi mengingat di kawasan hutan itu terdapat hulu Sungai Sutam, sumber mata air bagi masyarakat Batang Lubu Sutam.

Ketua PPP , Samson Fareddy Hasibuan, dan Gusnar Hasibuan, dari Partai Hanura menyampaikan agar Dinas Kehutanan dan Perkebunan Palas benar-benar mengawasi hutan dari tangan-tangan perambah.

�Karena itu, mari kita benar-benar menjaga kawasan hutan, selain sawmill yang tidak memiliki izin supaya ditertibkan, hingga saat ini masih ada kayu yang diangkut setiap malam,� tegasnya.

Soleman Harahap, Kadishutbun Palas menjelaskan, dari hasil investigasi tim Dushutbun Palas di lapangan, pihaknya memang ada menemukan gelondongan kayu yang dirambah di atas lahan register 8 Bukit Barisan (BB) di wilayah Kecamatan Batang Lobu Sutam (Batam).

Namun Dishutbun tidak ada mengeluarkan Izin Penebangan Kayu (IPK) di kawasan hutan register 8 tersebut. Dan keterbatasan personil pihaknya tidak bisa mengawasinya terjadinya perambahan hutan tersebut.


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WASPADA ONLINE

SIBUHUAN - Tim Penyidik Pegawai Negeri Sipil (PPNS) Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup (LH) RI diminta tegas menangani masalah kerusakan hutan di PadangLawas.

Demikian dikatakan Ketua Dewan Pimpinan Pusat Forum Penyelamat Lingkungan Hidup Bukit Barisan (DPP FPLH-BB) Kabupaten Palas, H Sutan Soduguron Hasibuan.

Dikatakannya, kedatangan tim PPNS Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup dalam melakukan peninjauan langsung ke lapangan terkait perusakan hutan di wilayah Batang Lubu Sutam di Padanglawas. Hal itu akan memberi harapan baru bagi masyarakat, bahwa pemerintah pusat masih memiliki kepedulian terhadap masalah lingkungan, terutama yuang berkaitan kerusakan kawasan hutan.

Kedatangan tim Kementerian LH bersama Bareskrim Polri meninjau hutan di Batang Lubu Sutam berawal dari laporan masayarakat dan kerjasama yang baik dari Badan LH Padang Lawas.

Dengan kedatangan tim LH tersebut, masyarakat mengharapkan permasalahan perambahan hasil hutan kayu yang tidak sesuai dengan peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku bisa ditekan agar tidak memberi dampak yang semakin besar terhadap masyarakat sekitar.

Tim PPNS Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup bersama Bareskrim Mabes Polri yang turun ke Padang Lawas termasuk ,Lufti Sulandjuna, sebagai penyidik PNS-LH, Sumarsono sebagai penyidik Pertama Bareskrim Polri, Kuriyanto sebagai penyidik Pratama Bareskrim Polri, Mariduk Sitorus sebagai penyidik PNS-LH dan Fakhruroji Fuad sebagai Asdep Penegakan Hukum Pidana Lingkungan.

Ketua Fraksi Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan (PDI-P) yang juga Ketua Komisi C DPRD Padang Lawas, Idham Hasbuan, menegaskan aparat Polres Tapsel jangan tutup mata terkait masalah perambahan hutan di daerah ini.

Diutarakannya, selama ini banyak titik koordinat hutan di Palas yang telah dirambah oleh penguasa, termasuk hutan di Batang Lubu Sutam dan Hutan Marenu di Kecamatan Aeknabara Barumun.

pengkaderan imss ke 4

pengkaderan imss ke 4

Alhamdulillah pengkaderan IMSS yang ke 4 di sibolangit cukup sukses dan menarik, yang didukung oleh beberapa kegiatan dan pemateri yang cukup handal dan berkompeten di bidangnya, ada bg Ahmad kamil lubis s. pd seketaris KNPI kota Medan, juga sebagai senior di IMSS yang membahas dan mengupas tuntas tentang kedaerahan padang lawas dan organisasi, kemudian ada bg Saipul azhari siagian mantan ketua korcab PMII sumut sekarang active di KNPI sumut, jg sebagai ketua LPPBNU, yang membahas tentang kepeminpinan, ada juga bg Amran pulungan SE, ketua AMPP, dan jg sebagai wartawan yang cukup kritis terhadap pemeritahan dan peduli kepada rakyat yang bercerita tentang sumber daya manusia, dan ada bg Yusnar hsb SH, juga ikut berpartisipasi dan memberikan motivasi yang peduli terhadap permaslahan hukum di Indonesia, dan yang tak kalah menarik adalah kakanda Melvi Tampubolon yang membahas masalah kesehatan dan kenakalan remaja,
Kegiatan pengkaderan imss juga dimeriahkan oleh kegiatan “outbound” dengan instruktur yang handal, outbond. Outbound adalah kegiatan di alam terbuka. Outbound juga dapat memacu semangat belajar. Outbound merupakan sarana penambah wawasan pengetahuan yang didapat dari serangkaian pengalaman berpetualang sehingga dapat memacu semangat dan kreativitas seseorang. Oleh karena itu, Kimpraswil menyatakan bahwa outbound adalah usaha olah diri (olah pikir dan olah fisik) yang sangat bermanfaat bagi peningkatan dan pengembangan motivasi, kinerja dan prestasi dalam rangka melaksanakan tugas dan kepentingan organisasi secara lebih baik lag .Pengalaman merupakan guru dalam proses pembelajaran secara alami.. Hal itu dalam rangka menambah dan mengembangkan pengetahuan dari setiap pengalamannya. Jadi, tidak menutup kemungkinan siapapun berhak bermain baik anak-anak, remaja, orang dewasa ataupun orang tua. Karena belajar dari sebuah pengalaman dalam aktivitas bermain dijadikan sebagai sarana pembelajaran yang menyenangkan yang dapat dilakukan di ruangan terbuka atau tertutup.
Berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut outbound merupakan perpaduan antara permainan-permainan sederhana, permainan ketangkasan, dan olah raga, serta diisi dengan petualangan-petualangan. Hal itu yang akhirnya membentuk adanya unsur-unsur ketangkasan, dan kebersamaan serta keberanian dalam memecahkan masalah. Seperti halnya Iwan menegaskan bahwa “permainan yang disajikan dalam outbound memang telah disusun sedemikian rupa, sehingga bukan hanya psikomotorik (fisik) peserta yang ’tersentuh’ tapi juga afeksi (emosi) dan kognisi (kemampuan berpikir).
Kaderisasi ini merupakan bukti kerja sama panitia pelaksana serta seluruh anggota imss yang cukup solit dan teranca mulai dari perencanaan awal hingga berakhir. pengkaderan imss ini dilaksanakan pada tanggal 25-27 Maret 2011 SKB ( Sanggar Kegiatan Bersama ) di sibolangit, jumlah peserta sekitar 70 orang di tambah panitia sekitar 20 orang, pengkaderan ini didasari oleh kurangnya kaderisasi kedaerahan khususnya di imss, artinya ketika periode seblumnya tidak pernah diakadan kaderisasi selama 2 periode, sehingga mahasiswa/i dari sosa sekitar kurang mengenal apa itu imss dan untuk apa imss ini , dan disisi lain kurangnnya minat mahasiswa yang berasal dari daerah sosa dan sekitarnya untuk bergabung dalam organinasasi kadearehan tersebut pada hal sma-ama kita ketahui organisasi kedaerahan sangat penting dalam membangun karakter yang berjiawa sosialis, harmonis dan dinamis, juga organisasi kedaerahan adalah sebgai wadah menumpah ruah kan masalah – masalah kedaerahan kususnya sosa dan sekitarnya.

Grammar For Ourself

simple Present Tense
1A. Explanation
The simple present tense takes one of two forms depending on the subject.
Subject base form -s form
I, you eat
They, We go
Plural nouns work
He, She, It eats
Singular nouns goes
Non count-nouns works

1B. Examples
Subjects followed by verb in base form: Subjects with verb in –s form
I like rice. She makes toys.
You look nice. He rakes leaves.
They think twice. It takes time.
We throw dice. Mom bakes pies.
Chefs use spice. Water slakes thirst.
The boys ring the doorbell. Jill loves dates.
Children sing on special occasions. Mr. Smith fills crates.
Some people bring gifts to parties. Grandpa washes plates.
Bees sting when they are disturbed. The dog jumps gates.

1C. Exercises
1. Jerry (come/comes) to school on time.
2. Jerry and Linda (come/comes) to school on time.
3. Ms. Jones (teach/teaches) geography.
4. The cat (sleep/sleeps) on the sofa every day.
5. Milk (cost/costs) two dollars a quart.
2A. Explanation
Use the simple present tense to indicate:
1. Routine actions
2. Facts
2B. Examples
Routine actions Facts
John brushes his teeth every morning. Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean.
Carol usually drives to work. Some birds fly south for the winter.
The teacher grades homework on Fridays. Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.

Note how the present tense is used in the following paragraph.
Mr. Lee is a bus driver. Every day he gets up at 7:00 a.m. and prepares for his day. He showers, eats his breakfast, and puts on his uniform. His wife drives him to the station where he checks in with his supervisor. Then, he gets on Bus #405 and starts the engine. He pulls out of the parking lot and begins his route. At his first stop, he picks up Mrs. Miller, who lives in a red house on the corner of Main Street and Seventh Avenue. She works at the post office and has to be to work by 9:00. At the next stop, the Bartlett twins get on the bus. They attend class at Bayside Elementary. More children get on at the next three stops, and they ride until the bus reaches their school. Mr. Lee enjoys seeing the kids every day and is happy to see them again in the afternoon when he drives them safely back home.
2C. Exercises
1. To practice the present tense, reread the above paragraph, then try to repeat the main ideas in your own words. Be sure to use the -s form of the verb when the subject of a sentence is singular. Have a partner listen to your speech and check for correct usage of verbs.
2. Tell whether the present tense is appropriate in the following sentences.
1. Yesterday I go to Washington D.C.
2. Everyday, Mr. Johnson cleans his room.
3. They usually take the bus to the office.
4. Right now Susan eats her breakfast.
5. Melinda and Harry work in the bank. Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct
Correct Incorrect
Incorrect
Incorrect
Incorrect
Incorrect
Common Mistakes with the simple present tense
1. Not using the -s form with singular subjects:
Jack likes Chinese food.
Jack like Chinese food. (Correct)
(Incorrect)
2. Using the simple present tense when another tense is required.
Last night I watched television for two hours.
Last night I watch television for two hours. (Correct)
(Incorrect)


Adjectives
Adjectives are used to describe nouns. They give more details or information about the nouns they are associated with.
A: Tell me about your boyfriend
B: Well, he is tall, dark, and handsome.
A: Sounds like mine.
Adjectives can be used to answer the questions What kind (of) or Which one?
A: Hi. I'm calling about the car you're selling?
B: It's a great car. (It's) in excellent condition.
A: What kind of seats does it have?
B: They're very comfortable seats, (soft, plush, just like a sofa.)
A: Uh. I think I'll sleep on it.
A: Hand me a book.
B: Which one do you want?
A: The red book. The red one.

Adjectives come before the nouns they modify (not after).
Three happy hippies lived in the Heartquake Hotel.
WRONG: Three hippies happy lived in the Heartquake Hotel.
Adjectives can also be used with linking verbs to describe the subject of a sentence.
When used in this manner, the adjective(s) come after the linking verb.
My mother is tall and slender.
WRONG: My mother tall and slender. (No linking verb.)
Seem, become, appear, and verbs of perceptioncan also be used as linking verbs. Note how they are used with adjectives in the following. Can you identify the linking verbs and the adjectives?
The journey seemed long. (It appeared strenuous and boring.)
You smell nice today. What kind of cologne are you wearing?
A: What do you want to do this weekend? Bowling? Shopping? A movie?
B: Bowling sounds good.
Adjective Order

When several adjectives modify the same noun, there is a particular order they must follow in English. Certain adjectives come before others. (Not all have to be used in the same sentence.)
See the chart below.

Quanti-fier




Some of
All of
Both Article
Posses-sive
Demons-trative

the, a, an
this, that
my, his Number
Sequence




three
second
next Quality
Size




wonderful
clean
large Shape





round
square
flat Color





red
yellow
black Origin





Laos
Italian
French Material





metal
ceramic
wood

Examples:
Some of the hungry gentlemen
The last great civilization
Ten big round metal rings
The beautiful Japanese ceramic vase
Either of the small green apples
My three lovely daughters
An interesting wooden statue
The third red plastic containe
resent Progressive / Continuous
The present progressive tense takes the form be + V ing.
The form of “be” is determined by the subject of the sentence.
He is singing.
She is listening.
They are sleeping.
I am going home.
In English, the present progressive is used to indicate actions happening at the time of speaking, or right now.
Jake is speaking to his mother right now.
Please keep quiet. The baby is sleeping.
The present progressive can also be used to indicate actions occurring over a period of time which includes the present.
I’m taking five classes at the university.
Grace is working at a chemical factory.
What are you doing these days?
The present progressive is sometimes used to indicate ongoing, developing, imminent or future actions.
Ongoing
Don’t bother Mr. Grumpy while he is watching the football game.
Developing
I’m beginning to like this place!
Imminent
A: Honey, where are you?
B: I’m coming. Just let me put on my shoes.
Future (Note the presence of future time words.)
A: Are you going to the concert this weekend?
B: I wish I could, but I’m meeting an important client from Oklahoma.
Some non-action verbs do not occur in the present progressive tense. The simple present is sufficient.
Past Simple
Explanation
1. The simple past tense is expressed with the past form of the verb and nothing else.
My grandfather died last year. (Correct)
My grandfather was died last year. (Incorrect)
My grandfather has died last year. (Incorrect)
2. The simple past tense refers to
a. action which occurred at a specific time in the past
b. completed action
c. past status
Examples
Specific past action Completed action Past status
I ate lunch at noon today.
He drove to work yesterday. She finally mailed the letter.
Jan finished her report on time. John was still single in 1995.
Jane was a movie star.

Note the usage of the past tense in the following story.
Yesterday Mrs. Hubbard had a very rough day. In the morning, she went to the kitchen and looked in the cupboard for some food for her dog, but the cupboard was empty. Her poor dog stared up at her with its hungry eyes, and she knew she had to do something quickly. She hurried to the grocery store to buy some dog food, but unfortunately the store was out of her dog’s favorite brand, so she had to catch a bus downtown. After buying the food, she waited for a half hour in the rain to get a taxi. When she finally got home, her dog was sound asleep on the living room sofa.

Common problems with the past tense
1. Using the present tense when the past tense is required.
Last week, Tonya fix her neighbor’s car. (Incorrect)
Last week, Tonya fixed her neighbor’s car. (Correct)
2. Using “was” with verbs in the past tense.
It was happened one night in September. (Incorrect)
It happened one night in September. (Correct)

Past Progressive / Continuous
Past progressive tense is used to indicate that an action was in progress when another action occurred in the past.
Past progressive (was/were + Ving) refers to the action in progress, and simple past tense refers to the "interrupting" action.
While I was eating dinner, the telephone rang.
The telephone rang while I was eating dinner.
When the telephone rang, I was eating dinner.
I was eating dinner when the telephone rang.
Past continuous can also be used to indicate only one action which occurred in the past:
What was John doing yesterday?
He was working at the factory.
What were they doing yesterday afternoon?
They were playing soccer.
What were you doing last night?
I was studying English.
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Tense can be used in three situations:
1. To indicate something that has happened at an indefinite time in the past.
I have seen that movie already.
She has left for California.
They have not eaten their dinner yet.
2. To indicate something which started in the
past and continues until now.
I have lived in New York for nine years.
We have been here since Friday.
He has played football since he was a child.
3. To indicate something which occurred recently.
I have been sick lately.
She hasn’t slept much recently.
Notes:
When speaking about a specific time, use past tense.
A: I have seen that movie already. (Non-specific time)
B: Oh really? When did you see it?
A: I saw it last week with Bob. (Specific time)
Some words should not be used in situation 2 (above)
I have met John for five years. (INCORRECT)
I have known John for five years. (CORRECT)
I met John five years ago. (CORRECT)
I have met John already. (CORRECT)
Sometimes, but not always, present perfect continuous can be used instead of present perfect.
I have lived there for ten years. (Okay)
I have been living there for ten years. (Okay)
I have exercised a lot recently. (Okay)
I have been exercising a lot recently. (Okay)
I have seen that movie ten times. (Okay)
I have been seeing that movie ten times. (NOT Okay)
this is very good site for people like me who wants to learn english:0 guys keep up the good work,your helping lot os people because of this.
present Perfect Progressive
The present perfect progressive expresses the meaning “until now” and makes the connection between the past and present. Since it is progressive, it usually connotes an idea of continuity. It is often used with prepositional phrases: for + amount of time and since + point in time.
I have been living in Minneapolis since 1999.
I have been living in Minneapolis for three years.
The present perfect progressive tense is made by placing have been (or has been) immediately in front of the –ing form of the main verb.
The present perfect progressive can sometimes be interchanged with the present perfect tense with little or no deviation in meaning.
Esther has worked there for nine years.
Esther has been working there for nine years.
However, in cases where the present perfect tense carries the meaning “before now” (non-specific time in the past), the present perfect progressive cannot be used.
ast Perfect
Past perfect tense is used to indicate that one action occurred before another action in the past. In other words, past perfect tense indicates the first of the two actions.*
For example,
When I woke up this morning, my roommate had left already.
After I had eaten my dinner, I went to see a movie.
Before I arrived at the theater, the movie had already begun.
Sometimes, when the meaning is clear from context, the simple past tense can be used.
After I had gone shopping, I stopped at the health spa.
After I went shopping, I stopped at the health spa.
The most common error with the past perfect is using it where it does not belong.
When I was young, I had been a cowboy.
When I was young, I was a cowboy. (Incorrect—no reference to other events)
(Correct)
Yesterday the Johnsons had opened their new business.
Yesterday the Johnsons opened their new business. (Incorrect)
(Correct)

*In some very unusual cases, the past perfect tense can refer to the second past action.
Before I had finished my homework, the telephone rang.
(The telephone interrupted me before I finished my homework.)

ear Sir/Madam

Having heard that there is an excited vacancy for Sales Manager, I am interested to join at your established organization and a copy of my curriculum vitae is enclosed.

I am currently working as a Sales Executive and completely have previous background at Sales Department in one of Asia chain resort. With impeccable standards of hotel and villa experience, have an excellent eye for detail and the ability to bring out the best in your team.

Though it would be my third experience in the hospitality industry, the kind of work in which your consulate is engaged particularly interests me and I would welcome the opportunity to join your excellent company.

I shall be pleased to provide any further information you may need and hope I may be given the opportunity of an interview.



Yours sincerely,


Your Name
Future Simple
In English the Future Time is expressed in a number of ways. The most common are with will and be going to. See examples from the following sentences.
I will finish my homework in an hour.
I’m going to finish my homework in an hour.
With be going to, make sure the verb be agrees with its subject. I’m going to eat a whole watermelon.
She’s going to eat a whole watermelon.
Actually, we’re going to eat a whole watermelon together.
In speech, the words going to are often pronounced “ gonna .”
Don’t forget the be verb.
A: What are you gonna do this weekend?
B: I’m gonna stay home and clean my carpet.
NOT: I gonna stay…
NOT: I’m gonna to stay…
What’s the difference between will and be going to?
Both can be used interchangeably in some cases. (Predictions and guesses)
My prints will be here tomorrow.
My prints are going to be here tomorrow.
Be going to is preferable for strong intentions or for describing the inevitable.
I’m going to give her a piece of my mind.
There’s no way they can score 21 points in 2 minutes. We’re going to win!
Will is the preferable form for making offers or expressing pop decisions.
A: Who will help me finish this chocolate cake?
B: I will.
A: I have two tickets left for the front row.
B: I’ll take them.
Sometimes future time can be expressed with either the present or present progressive tense. In such cases, time words must be expressed or clearly implied.
I fly to Beijing tomorrow.
I’m flying to Beijing tomorrow.
Sorry I can’t attend the picnic on Saturday. I’m flying to Beijing.
Future Progressive
Future progressive tense is used to indicate action which will be taking place at some time in the future.
For example,
I will be singing at Symphony Hall next month.
We’ll be leaving next Monday.
When you arrive, I’ll be cooking dinner.
The future progressive tense is formed by adding will be to the –ing form of the main verb.
She will be coming around the mountain in a few minutes.
She’ll be riding a white horse into town.
The future progressive tense is not as common as other tenses, and it can some-times be replaced by simple future, present progressive or even simple present.
I’ll be leaving in a few minutes.
I’ll leave in a few minutes.
I’m going to leave in a few minutes.
I’m leaving in a few minutes.
I leave in a few minutes.
Future Perfect
The future perfect tense is not commonly used in English. It indicates that an action will be completed in the future (usually before some other action or event).
I will finish my Russian course in June. In July, I will begin studying Chinese.
By the time I begin studying Chinese, I will have finished my Russian course.
When I finish this race, I will have run a total of five miles.
Before they leave for Miami, they will have visited Houston and New Orleans.
The important thing to remember is the time of completion. (Beginning time may vary.)
I started studying last year. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June.
I am studying right now. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June.
I will start studying next month. I will have passed my exams when I graduate next June.
Regular Verbs
(see Complete list of Irregular Verbs)
base -s form past past participle -ing form notes

call calls called called calling
clean cleans cleaned cleaned cleaning

look looks looked looked looking 1
talk talks talked talked talking 1

end ends ended ended ending 2
wait waits waited waited waiting 2

kiss kisses kissed kissed kissing 3
wash washes washed washed washing 3

live lives lived lived living 4
love loves loved loved loving 4

beg begs begged begged begging 5
sin sins sinned sinned sinning 5

play plays played played playing
stay stays stayed stayed staying

cry cries cried cried crying 6
study studies studied studied studying 6

die dies died died dying
tie ties tied tied tying
Notes:
1. Pronunciation differences in past/past participle after /p, s, k, f/ sounds

2. Pronunciation differences in past/past participle after /t, d/ sounds
3. Spelling and pronunciation differences in –s form after /s, sh, ch, z/ sounds
4. Dropping of “silent e” with –ing endings
5. Doubled consonants after “short” vowel sounds
6. Spelling differences when “y” is preceded by a consonant
nfinitive Simple Past Past Participle
A
arise arose arisen awake awakened / awoke awakened / awoken
B
backslide backslid backslidden / backslid be was, were been bear bore born / borne beat beat beaten / beat become became become begin began begun bend bent bent bet bet / betted bet / betted bid bid / bade bidden bid bid bid bind bound bound bite bit bitten bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought broadcast broadcast / broadcasted broadcast / broadcasted build built built burn burned / burnt burned / burnt burst burst burst bust busted / bust busted / bust buy bought bought
C
cast cast cast catch caught caught choose chose chosen cling clung clung clothe clothed / clad clothed / clad come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept cut cut cut
D
daydream daydreamed / daydreamt daydreamed / daydreamt deal dealt dealt dig dug dug disprove disproved disproved / disproven dive dove / dived dived dive dived / dove dived do did done draw drew drawn dream dreamed / dreamt dreamed / dreamt drink drank drunk drive drove driven dwell dwelt / dwelled dwelt / dwelled
E
eat ate eaten
F
fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found fit (tailor, change size) fitted / fit fitted / fit fit (be right size) fit / fitted fit / fitted flee fled fled fling flung flung fly flew flown forbid forbade forbidden forecast forecast forecast forego forewent foregone foresee foresaw foreseen foretell foretold foretold forget forgot forgotten / forgot forgive forgave forgiven forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen
G
get got gotten / got give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown
H
hang hung hung have had had hear heard heard hew hewed hewn / hewed hide hid hidden hit hit hit hold held held hurt hurt hurt
K
keep kept kept kneel knelt / kneeled knelt / kneeled knit knitted / knit knitted / knit know knew known
L
lay laid laid lead led led lean leaned / leant leaned / leant leap leaped / leapt leaped / leapt learn learned / learnt learned / learnt leave left left lend lent lent let let let lie lay lain lie (not tell truth) lied lied light lit / lighted lit / lighted lose lost lost
M
make made made mean meant meant meet met met misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood mow mowed mowed / mown
P
partake partook partaken pay paid paid plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled proofread proofread proofread prove proved proven / proved put put put
Q
quick-freeze quick-froze quick-frozen quit quit / quitted quit / quitted
R
read read (sounds like "red") read (sounds like "red") rid rid rid ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run
S
saw sawed sawed / sawn say said said see saw seen seek sought sought sell sold sold send sent sent set set set sew sewed sewn / sewed shake shook shaken shave shaved shaved / shaven shear sheared sheared / shorn shed shed shed shine shined / shone shined / shone shit shit / shat / shitted shit/ shat / shitted shoot shot shot show showed shown / showed shrink shrank / shrunk shrunk shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank / sunk sunk sit sat sat slay (kill) slew / slayed slain / slayed slay (amuse) slayed slayed sleep slept slept slide slid slid sling slung slung slink slinked / slunk slinked / slunk slit slit slit smell smelled / smelt smelled / smelt sneak sneaked / snuck sneaked / snuck sow sowed sown / sowed speak spoke spoken speed sped / speeded sped / speeded spell spelled / spelt spelled / spelt spend spent spent spill spilled / spilt spilled / spilt spin spun spun spit spit / spat spit / spat split split split spoil spoiled / spoilt spoiled / spoilt spread spread spread spring sprang / sprung sprung stand stood stood steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk / stank stunk strew strewed strewn / strewed stride strode stridden strike (delete) struck stricken strike (hit) struck struck / stricken string strung strung strive strove / strived striven / strived sublet sublet sublet sunburn sunburned / sunburnt sunburned / sunburnt swear swore sworn sweat sweat / sweated sweat / sweated sweep swept swept swell swelled swollen / swelled swim swam swum swing swung swung
T
take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn telecast telecast telecast tell told told test-drive test-drove test-driven test-fly test-flew test-flown think thought thought throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trodden / trod
U
understand understood understood undertake undertook undertaken undo undid undone
W
wake woke / waked woken / waked waylay waylaid waylaid wear wore worn weave wove / weaved woven / weaved wed wed / wedded wed / wedded weep wept wept wet wet / wetted wet / wetted whet whetted whetted win won won wind wound wound withdraw withdrew withdrawn withhold witChoosing the Correct Verb Tense
1. Does Tense = Time ?
Not Always
2. Situation and Time Words determine Time
3. Time chooses Tense (not the other way around)
4. Present Time (Now)
Present Continuous Tense
I am eating my dinner right now.
Present Tense for “non-action” verbs
I want some chocolate ice cream.
5. Future Time
Future with “will”
I will leave tomorrow
Future with “be going to”
I am going to leave tomorrow.
Future Continuous tense
I will be leaving tomorrow.
Future with Present Continuous tense
I am leaving tomorrow
Future with Present tense
I leave tomorrow.
6. Past Time
Facts: Use Simple Past Tense only
I ate my breakfast at 7:00 this morning.
Relationship between two times.
I had eaten my breakfast when my roommate left.
Relationship between events.
I was eating my breakfast when the telephone rang.
hheld withheld withstand withstood withstood wring wrung wrung write wrote written
Less Common Tenses

The past perfect progressive and future perfect progressive are not commonly used in English. They indicate action which occurs continuously over a period of time, when another action or event intervenes. Some examples are included here for your reference.
Past Perfect Progressive
We had been playing baseball for two hours yesterday when it started to rain.
I had been sending out applications for months. Finally, I got a phone call.
Future Perfect Progressive
We will have been flying for two hours when we cross the Mississippi River.
In August, I will have been studying here for three years.
Often the past perfect progressive and future perfect progressive can be replaced by their counterparts: past perfect or future perfect.
I had been driving for hours when I stopped to rest.
I had driven for hours when I stopped to rest.

By the time I get to Tempe, I will have been traveling all day.
By the time I get to Tempe, I will have traveled all day.
Passive Voice
How to construct the passive.
1. Check to see if the active sentence contains an object.
John ate an apple. (S V O) Passive is possible.
John ate yesterday. (S V) Passive is not possible.
2. Move the object to the front of the sentence. Put the original subject in a "be" phrase .
An apple (V) by John.
3. Put the verb in the form "be" +3 (of main verb)
An apple У be Ф eaten by John.
4. Put the "be" in the same tense as the original active sentence.
An apple was/were eaten by John. ( past tense)
5. Make the first verb agree with the new subject.
An apple was eaten by John.
(Put other elements of the sentence in grammatical and logical order.)
Yesterday the large green apple was quickly eaten by John, who didnТt realize that it belonged to his sister.
When other (auxiliary) verbs and modals are used in combination with the passive, remember:
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple should have been being eaten by John
Combination of auxiliary verbs with the passive.
Present Tense
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple is eaten by
John
Past Tense
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple was eaten by John
Present ProgressiveTense
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple is being eaten by John
Past Tense
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple was being eaten by
John
Present Perfect Tense
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple have been eaten by John
Present Perfect Progressive
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple have been being eaten by John
Past Perfect Progressive
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple had been being eaten by John
Future/Modal
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple will be eaten by John
Future/Modal
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple is going to be eaten by John
Modal
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple must be eaten by John
Past Modal
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple must have been eaten by John
Combination
Modal + 1
(Modal) Have + 3
(Perfect) be + V-ing
(Progressive) be + 3
(Passive)
The apple must have been being eaten by John
Non Passives

The following sentences indicate a common error among non-native speakers of English.
X Jackson was arrived at 10:00 yesterday.
X My dog was died last week.
X What was happened?
X Dudley was slept at a hotel last night.
When using the simple past tense, only one verb is needed. The correct sentences are:
Jackson arrived at 10:00 yesterday.
My dog died last week.
What happened?
Dudley slept at a hotel last night.
Sometimes students confuse the simple past tense with the passive. Notice the difference in the following sentences.
Tamara ate a sandwich at noon.
A sandwich was eaten by Tamara.
Tamara ate yesterday.
Yesterday was eaten by Tamara. Simple past tense
Passive past tense
Okay
Not Okay
(Yesterday is not an object. Thus, the passive is not possible here.)
Some verbs in English are in-transitive. That is, they do not take objects. These verbs cannot be used in the passive voice.
Alexander wrote a letter.
A letter was written by Alexander.
The news surprised Karen.
Karen was surprised (by the news).
My dog died last week.
X My dog was died last week.
Monica swims every day.
Monica is swum every day. Transitive verb and object
Passive voice okay
Transitive verb and object
Passive voice okay
In-transitive verb (no object)
Incorrect! Passive not okay
In-transitive verb (no object)
Incorrect! Passive not okay
*Some verbs can be either transitive or in-transitive depending on the situation.
Jim walked to school this morning.
Jim walked the dog this morning.
The dog was walked (by Jim).

Stative passives
Stative passives are verb-like words that follow “be” in sentences and function as adjectives. See the examples below:
He is hungry. (Adjective)
He is interested (Stative passive)
His leg is broken (Stative passive)

Stative passives indicate a status or condition which may exist over a period of time. In contrast, action verbs often indicate a change from one status to another.
We got married in 1998.
(Action: We changed from “single” to “married”.)
We are married now. Status: Our current condition is “married.”)
Jack broke the window. (Action: Indicates what happened at a given moment.)
The window is broken. (Status: Indicates the condition of the window.)

Note how the action/status contrast works with other verbs:
Jared fell asleep.


Jared is asleep. (Action: Change in status from “awake” to "asleep").

(Status: Indicates Jared’s current condition.)
Joan became sick.


Joan is sick. (Action: Joan changed from “healthy” to “sick.”)

(Status: Joan’s present condition.)
The building caught fire.


The building is on fire now. (Action: Indicates the point when the fire started.)

(Status: Indicates the condition of the building.)
The doctor came in.

The doctor is in. (Action)

(Status)

Stative passives are often used with prepositional expressions.
See Grammar: Preposition Collocations with “Be".
She is interested in photography.
Brad was worried about his mother.
Carmen is terrified of snakes.
Everyone was caught up in the excitement.
Some adjectives also fit in the same pattern:
Karen is fond of chocolates.
I’m crazy about sports cars.
You’re full of baloney.
Passive with Get
The word get is sometimes used instead of be to form the passive. In such cases, get indicates a change in status or condition. For example,
I got sick after eating the red meat.
They will get married tomorrow.
He got killed in the accident. (I became sick.)

(They changed from “single” to “married.”)
(Something caused him to die.)

Get is often used in idiomatic expressions. For example,
What time will you get done?
James got drunk at the party.
I hope you get better soon.
We got engaged last week. (What time will you be finished?)
(He became drunk at the party.)
(I hope you become well soon.)
(We became an engaged couple.)
Get Married/Be Married

Get Married/Be Married
Active: The preacher married Jack and Jill.
Passive: Jack and Jill were married (by the preacher).
Jack married Jill. (S V O) (Okay)

Be Married To
Jack was married to Jill.
Jill was married to Jack.


Jack is married.
Jack is married to Jill.
Jack was married. Two meanings:
(by the preacher)
(but not anymore)
Status
(current status)
(fact)
(but he isn’t anymore)
Jack has been married for five months.
Jack and Jill have been married for five months.
How long have Jack and Jill been married?
Incorrect:
X Jack married to Jill.
X Jack married with Jill.
X Jack was married with Jill.

Get Married
Jack and Jill will get married next week.
Jack and Jill will be married next week (by the preacher).
Jack got married on April 1.
Jack got married (to Jill) on April 1. (not common)
Jack and Jill got married on April 1. (better)
Incorrect:
X Jack and Jill have gotten married since October.
X How long have Jack and Jill gotten married?

Get Engaged/Be Engaged
Get engaged
Be engaged
Be engaged to
Jill got engaged (to Jack) last week. (not common)
Jack and Jill got engaged last week.
Jack and Jill are engaged now.
Jack and Jill have been engaged for one week.
Incorrect:
X Jack engaged Jill.
X Jack got engaged with Jill.
X They have gotten engaged for one week.
X How long have they gotten engaged?

Get Divorced/Be Divorced
A divorced B
Get divorced
Be divorced
Be divorced from
Jack divorced Jill. (or vice versa)
Jack and Jill got divorced last month.
Jack and Jill are divorced now.
Jack is divorced
Jill is divorced.
When did they get divorced?
How long have they been divorced?
They have been divorced for a month.
Jack is divorced from Jill. (not common)
Incorrect:
X Jill got divorced with Jack.
X Jack has gotten divorced for one month.
X How long have Jack and Jill gotten divorced?
Yes/No Questions
There are many types of questions in English. The easiest are questions that can be answered “yes” or “no.”
A: Are you from around here?
B: Yes, I am. A: Do you come here often?
B: Yes, I do. A: Can I buy you a drink?
B: No, thanks. A: Are you married?
B: Yes, I am.
To form a question from a statement, first count the number of verbs.
John is a doctor. One verb: is (be)
Jane drives a sports car. One verb: drives
Joan played basketball last night. One verb: played
Jan is eating her dinner. Two verbs: is eating
June has rented an apartment. Two verbs: has rented
Jen has been living there since 1969. Three verbs: has been living

If there is one verb in the statement and the verb is a form of be, simply switch the positions of the subject and verb.
Statement Question
John is a doctor. Is John a doctor?
The Jensens are here. Are the Jensens here?

If there are two verbs, simply switch the positions of the subject and first verb.
Statement Question
Jan is eating dinner. Is Jan eating dinner?
June has rented an apartment. Has June rented an apartment?
Jen has been living here since 1969. Has Jen been living here since 1969?
If there is one verb, and the verb is not a form of be, the process is more complex.
1. Add Do to the beginning of the sentence.
The Johnsons live in that house. Do the Johnsons live in that house?

2. If the main verb “carries” a third person singular s, move the s to Do, making it Does.
Jane drives a car. Do Jane drives a car? (Not finished yet!)
Does Jane drive a car? (Good question!)

3. If the main verb “carries" past tense, move the past tense to Do, making it Did.
Joan played basketball last night. Do Joan played basketball? (Not finished yet!)
Did Joan play basketball? (Good question!)
In conversation, most questions are asked of the second person (you) and answered in the first (I).
A: Are you from California?
B: No, I’m from Oregon. Are you?
A: Yes, I’m from Hollywood.
B: Do you know any movie stars?
A: No, I don’t go out at night.
In British English, the main verb have sometimes functions like be in questions. This is not common in American English.
Statement Question
You have a pet ferret. Have you a pet ferret? (British)
Do you have a pet ferret? (American)
Wh- Questions
Wh- Questions allow a speaker to find out more information about topics. They are as follows:
When?
Where?
Who?
Why?
How?
What? Time
Place
Person
Reason
Manner
Object/Idea/Action

Other words can also be used to inquire about specific information:
Which (one)?
Whose?
Whom?
How much?
How many?
How long?
How often?
How far?
What kind (of)? Choice of alternatives
Possession
Person (objective formal)
Price, amount (non-count)
Quantity (count)
Duration
Frequency
Distance
Description


The “grammar” used with wh- questions depends on whether the topic being asked about is the “subject” or “predicate” of a sentence. For the subject pattern, simply replace the person or thing being asked about with the appropriate wh-word.
(Someone has my baseball.)
(Something is bothering you.) Who has my baseball?
What is bothering you?


For the predicate pattern, wh- question formation depends on whether there is an “auxiliary” verb in the original sentence. Auxiliary or “helping” verbs are verbs that precede main verbs. Auxiliary verbs are italicized in the following sentences.
I can do it.
They are leaving.
I have eaten my lunch.
I should have finished my homework.
To make a question using the predicate pattern, first form a yes/no question by inverting the subject and (first) auxiliary verb. Then, add the appropriate wh- word to the beginning of the sentence.
(You will leave some time.) … will you leave
When will you leave?
(He is doing something.) … is he doing
What is he doing?
(They have been somewhere.) … have they been
Where have they been?
If there is no auxiliary and the verb is “be,” invert the subject and verb, then add the appropriate wh- word to the beginning of the sentence.
(He is someone.) … is he
Who is he?
(The meeting was some time) … was the meeting
When was the meeting?
If there is no auxiliary and the verb is not “be,” add do to the beginning of the sentence. Then add the appropriate wh-question word. Be sure to “transfer” the tense and number from the main verb to the word do.
(You want something.) … do you want
What do you want?
(You went somewhere.) … did you go (past tense)
Where did you go?

She likes something.) … does she like (third person –s)
What does she like?
Complex Question Formation
Statement Questions
Statement questions can be used to express surprise or disbelief.
You’re not married?
They won the game?
He does?

For added effect, you can add a wh- word.
You did what?
She went where?

Negative Questions
Aren’t you going to the dance?
Haven’t you been there before?
Isn’t that Doctor Zimbango?

Questions with Or
Is it the blue one, or the red one?
Would you like some tea or coffee?
Subject-Verb Agreement
Third person singular -s
Use the –s form of a verb in the present tense when the subject is third person singular.
For all other subjects, use the base form in the present tense.
Example:
base form
I live in Athens.
They live in Crete.
The Smiths live in Rome.
-s form
He lives in Cyprus.
She lives in Malta.
Tim lives in Naples.
Ms. Conner lives in Milan.
The verb have
The –s form of the verb have is has.
We have a winner.
He has a trophy.
The verb be
The –s form (present tense) for be is is. For the past tense, it is was.
Was is also used with first person singular subjects (I) in the past tense.
(Am is used in the present tense. Are is used with other subjects in the present, and were is used in the past.)
She is here.
He is not here.
I am here too.
You are right.
They are wrong.
She was home yesterday.
Ron wasn’t home yesterday.
I was here yesterday.
We were here too.
Auxiliary verbs
When auxiliary verbs are used, only the first verb carries the third person singular –s.
Jean does not like spaghetti. (Correct)
Jean does not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)
Jean do not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)
Elsa is eating her dinner. (Correct)
Elsa is eats her dinner. (Wrong!)
Leo is going to eat later.
Frank has eaten lunch already. (Correct)
Frank have eaten lunch already. (Wrong!)
Modals
Do not use the –s form of the verb with modals, regardless of the subject.
Ian can eat twelve bowls of rice. (Correct)
Ian can eats twelve bowls of rice. (Wrong!
Conjunctions and Linking Words
Coordinators
Coordinators connect elements of equal importance.
S + V , but

S + V (and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet)
S + V and V
S and S + V
N and N
Adj. and Adj.
Phrase and Phrase
Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D

Subordinators
Subordinators connect elements of unequal importance. One clause is not as strong as the other.
S + V although S + V (although, even though, because, since*, when, while, before*, after*, whenever, wherever*, if, unless, whether…[or not] as, as [adjective] as, so that, whereas anywhere*, anytime*)
Although S + V , S + V

Sentence Connectors
Sentence Connectors connect paragraphs or show relationship between very different ideas.
S + V . However, S + V (however, therefore, thus, moreover,
nevertheless, first*, then*, next*, still*
besides, consequently, furthermore)
S + V ; however, S + V



Prepositions
Prepositions show relationship among elements of a sentence.
They are followed by noun phrases only and cannot take on a S + V.
S + V (prep. phrase) (during, after*, before*, in, on, at
despite, in spite of, for*, since*, by
(Prep. phrase), S + V like, except, but*, about, to*, from
between [A and B], among, with
(Prep. phrase) V + S (unusual) within, without, beside, near, next to)
asic Sentence Structure
There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as follows:
S-V Subject-Verb John sleeps.
Jill is eating.
Jack will arrive next week.
S-V-O Subject-Verb-Object I like rice.
She loves her job.
He’s eating an orange.
S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is funny.
The workers are lazy.
Karen seems angry.
S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jim is here.
Flowers are everywhere.
No one was there.
S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my mom.
The men are doctors.
Mr. Jones is the teacher.
At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.
She sleeps. Core sentence
She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.
She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression is added to tell when she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the same.
Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage. New subject may require a different form of the verb.
Building Sentences
Remember, the S - V relationship is at the “heart” of every sentence. All sentences are built around this core.
To give a sentence more substance, you may enhance the subject or verb:

(VERB enhancements)
1. Change the verb in tense or aspect or a combination of the two.
He eats. (simple present)
He will eat. (future/modal)
He is eating. (continuous)
He has eaten. (perfect)
He has been eating. (combination)
He should have been eating. (combination)

2. Add an adverb or adverb phrase, or prepositional phrase.
He should have eaten already/ by now.
He was eating in the kitchen.
3. Add an adverbial clause.
He was eating when the bus arrived.
4. Add a participial phrase.
Having finished his homework, he ate.

(SUBJECT enhancements)
5. Change the noun to a pronoun or vice versa.
He eats.
John eats.
6. Add an article, demonstrative, or possessive.
The man eats.
This man eats.
His father eats.

Sentence Structure and Punctuation

Basic English Sentence Structures
S – V
S – V – O
S – V – IO – DO Jack is sleeping.
Jack ate an apple.
Jack gave Jill a ring. S – LV – Adj.
S – LV – Adv
S – LV – Noun Jack is sick.
Jack is here.
Jack is a doctor.

Combinations: One verb or one subject (no comma)
S V
S and S V
S V and V
S V O and O
S and S V O and O Jack is drinking.
Jack and Jill are drinking.
Jack is eating and drinking.
Jack drinks coffee and tea.
Jack and Jill drink tea and coffee.


Combinations: Two subjects, two verbs
Subordination (One idea is stronger.)
Jack drinks coffee although Jill drinks tea. (without a comma)
Although Jack drinks coffee, Jill drinks tea. (with a comma)
Coordination (equal ideas, with coordinator: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet)
Jack is drinking, and Jill is eating. (A comma [,] is needed here.)
Jack drinks coffee, but Jill drinks tea. (closest connection between ideas)
Closely related ideas (without coordinator)
Jack drinks coffee; Jill drinks tea. (A semi-colon [;] is used here.)
Jack drinks coffee; however, Jill drinks tea. (with a sentence connector)
Separate sentences (strongest break between ideas)
Jack drinks coffee. Jill drinks tea. (Use a period [.] to separate complete sentences.)
Jack drinks coffee. However, Jill drinks tea. (with a sentence connector)
Jack drinks coffee. Jill, however, drinks tea. (variation)
Note:
Do not use subordinators and coordinators to connect ideas in the same sentence:
Although Jack drinks coffee, but Jill drinks tea.
Jack drinks coffee, but Jill drinks tea.
Although Jack drinks coffee, Jill drinks tea. (INCORRECT)

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Related Grammar Topics
• Basic Sentence Structure
• Building Sentences
• Conjunctions and Linking Words
• Coordinators
• Prepositions and Subordinators
• Sentence Connectors
• Sentence Elements
• Subordinators
Grammar Exercises
More Grammar Topics
• Grammar Index
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Comments (1)

...
written by mike, June 16, 2010
edit the sentences into either a more correct or a tighter form. When editing the sentences, you should be careful not to lose any of the meaning of the original. Sometimes you may want to substitute words or break sentences up. Bottom line is that your version should be correct and sound better than the original.

please help !!

The report was a rehash and added nothing new to the explanation of why the girl had either taken her own life, been an accident victim or Sam had murdered her.


Novels tend to reflect the personalities of their authors and the time period in which the writer lived.


The reason I said that is because she never even bothered once to see if her sister could be given assistance by something she could have done.


His arrogant and cocky manner stems from his feeling of superiority over other individuals. Although unintentional, people do not hold high regard for someone of his nature in his social class


The devastating flood was disastrous, but neighbors cooperated together to help each other out.


The headstones were overturned, and vandals also destroyed the statuary.



For all intents and purposes, I have never yet met a dog I didn't like.



Flying in low under the clouds, the buildings looked almost squat



The fact is that I myself said that she was too absorbed in her own life to bother with the thing that was a problem for her sister.

A person cannot eliminate the chance of uncertainty in making any kind of contingent plans whatsoever
oordinators
Coordinators (and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*) connect elements of equal importance.
S + V , but S + V
S + V and V
S or S + V
N and N
Adj. and Adj.
Phrase and Phrase
Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D (A comma is normally used)
(No comma is necessary)
Examples:
He drinks coffee, but she drinks tea. (S + V , coordinator S +V)
Gary lives in Ohio, and Deana lives in Michigan.
She loves to dance, so she bought a studio.
You could buy a car, or you could put the money in the bank.
When there is a new subject and verb, a comma is used before (not after) the coordinator.
I hate to sing but, I love to dance. (Incorrect)
I hate to sing, but I love to dance. (Correct)
John and George both play football.
Paul listens to music and reads books.
John, Paul, George, and Harry are classmates. (two subjects)
(two verbs)
(series)
* For is also commonly used as a preposition. Yet can sometimes be used as an adverb
Subordinators

The most common subordinators are:
although, even though,
because, since*, so that,
when, while, before*, after*, whenever,
wherever, anywhere,
if, unless, whether…[or not]
as, as [adjective] as,
whereas (to show slight contrast)
(to give reasons)
(to indicate time relationships)

(to indicate place)
(to indicate conditions)
(to give comparisons)
(to show major contrast)
*These words can also be used as prepositions.
Subordinators have an interesting effect on words in a sentence. A clause (S +V) without a subordinator can stand alone as a complete statement.
I went to the store yesterday. (Complete statement)
However, when a subordinator is added, the statement seems incomplete.
When I went to the store yesterday, . . . (Well, what happened?)
The subordinating clause becomes dependent on something else to complete its meaning:
When I went to the store yesterday, I saw an old friend. (Idea is complete)
Subordinating or “dependent” clauses can occur at the beginning or end of a sentence. When used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is necessary after the clause itself.
S + V although S + V
Although S + V , S + V
In English, the subordinator always comes before the subject and verb in a clause.
I went to the grocery store after, I stopped at the bank.

After I went to the grocery store, I stopped at the bank. (Incorrect)

(Correct)
Subordinators and coordinators should not be used in the same sentence to introduce clauses. Choose one or the other, but do not use both together.
Although Nina won the prize, but she was not happy.
Although Nina won the prize, she was not happy.
Nina won the prize, but she was not happy. (Wrong)

(Correct)

(Also correct)
Sentence Connectors

She drinks coffee. He drinks tea.

She drinks coffee, but he drinks tea.
She drinks coffee, and he drinks tea.

She drinks coffee; he drinks tea.

Although she drinks coffee, he drinks tea.
She drinks coffee although he drinks tea.

Although she drinks coffee, but he drinks tea.
She drinks coffee; however, he drinks tea.

She drinks coffee. However, he drinks tea.

She drinks coffee. He, however, drinks tea. (Two separate sentences)
(Coordination)
(Both ideas are equal)
(Closely related ideas)
(Subordination)
(One idea is stronger)
(INCORRECT!)
(Sentence connector)
(Stronger break between ideas)
(Variation)
Remember:
A period (.) provides the strongest break between ideas.
A semicolon (;) is next, and a comma (,) provides the weakest separation.

Coordinators provide connection between equal ideas.
(and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet)
Examples:
Mom and Dad
red or green
She stayed, but he left.
Subordinators provide connection between unequal ideas.
(because, although, when, while, if, as, since, whenever, wherever…)
Example:
He didn’t go to work because he was sick.
Although John was unhappy, he still smiled.
Sentence Connectors provide connection between large groups of ideas/sentences. (usually paragraphs)
(therefore, otherwise, thus, in conclusion, furthermore…)
Relative Clauses

Relative clauses give more information about a subject or object. They usually follow and "agree" with the noun they modify and often occur between a Subject and Verb. However, they usually have no effect on the S + V relationship.
Examples:
The man who works at IBM comes from Hong Kong.
The house that Jack built remains empty.
The people who came to the party had a great time.
Those who arrive early are entitled to a rebate.
I ate an apple that had a worm in it.
She is the one who I told you about.
The man who lives over there is my uncle.
One of the men who lives over there is my uncle.
Only one of the people who work in the company is qualified.
Most relative clauses use the words who, whom, whose, which, that, when or where.
This is the place where I met my wife.
Paul is the man who loves Mary.
Simon is the man who(m) Mary loves. (subject position)
(object position)

Commas which set off relative clauses function like parentheses ( ) indicating non-essential information.
My wife, who is a doctor, works at Community Hospital.
My wife (who is a doctor) works at Community Hospital.
Without commas, relative clauses specify one member of a group:
My brother who is a scientist works at the university.
My brother who is a mechanic works at Bob’s Garage.
Specifies “which brother” (one of many)

Reduced Relative Clauses

Sample usage from the article:
• Other regions (which were) surveyed…
• …part of a US-based programme (which is) known as…
You may delete the relative pronoun (who, that, which) and the “be” verb when:
1. they are followed by a prepositional phrase.
A. The man who is in the house likes to watch television all day.
The man in the house likes to watch television all day.
B. The books that are on the desk are mine.
The books on the desk are mine.
2. the main verb in the relative clause is progressive.
A. The man who is swimming in the lake is my father.
The man swimming in the lake is my father.
B. The clothes that are lying on the floor belong to me.
The clothes lying on the floor belong to me.
3. the main verb in the relative clause is passive.
A. The survey which was conducted by the government did not indicate true public opinion.
The survey conducted by the government did not indicate true public opinion.
B. The food that was eaten by the mice was poisonous.
The food eaten by the mice was poisonous.

Related Grammar Topics
• Reducing Adverbial Clauses
• Relative Clauses
Grammar Exercises
More Grammar Topics
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Comments (3)

Other tenses
written by PS, April 26, 2010
reduction is also possible with other tenses which have no "be" form, e.g. present and past simple.

...
written by PS, April 26, 2010
In present simple, the present participle, and in past simple, the past participle appear in reduced relative clauses.

Reduced non-defining relative clauses
written by Piruz Siavoshi, May 10, 2010
Relative [=adjective] clauses
Necessary [=defining; restrictive] clauses
Unnecessary [=non-defining]

There are two different points which should not be confused:

1) Omitting just the relative pronoun if possible
2) Reduction of relative clauses if possible. Of course, here relative pronoun will be omitted as well as some changes on the verb within the relative clause.

Concerning the first point, you are absolutely right, because

“The relative pronoun can be omitted ONLY in necessary [defining] adjective [relative] clauses.”

What is called “reduction” is something else. Here it is not limited to only defining relative clauses. Of course, there are conditions for reducing relative clauses, whether defining or non-defining.

One grammar book explains as follows:

“An adjective clause can be reduced to an adjective phrase only if the clause (a) begins with who, which, or that as the subject of the clause and (b) contains a be form of the verb. … If there is no be form of the verb, it is often possible to omit the relative pronoun and change the verb to its –ing form [present participle].”

You see there is no mention of limiting it to only defining clauses. On the section about reduction of full adjective clauses into adjective phrases, that grammar book goes on with this clarifying point, with a warning about preserving the original punctuation:

“If the adjective clause needs commas [i.e. non-defining], the adjective phrase also needs commas.”

Then these examples are offered:

“Adjective clause: You can get your passport renewed at the Kennedy Building, which is located near the train station.
Adjective phrase: You can get your passport renewed at the Kennedy Building, located near the train station.”

Adjective clause: These articles, which were written several years ago, have been published in several popular magazines.
Adjective phrase: These articles, written several years ago, have been published in several popular magazines.


Undoubtedly, the examples above are non-defining clauses which have those acceptable reduced forms.
A related kind but with different name is appositive phrases:

“Some adjective clauses can be reduced to appositive phrases. An appositive phrase is a noun or pronoun with modifiers that is placed after another noun or pronoun to explain it.

Adjective clause: History, which is my favorite subject, has always fascinated me.
Appositive phrase: History, my favorite subject, has always fascinated me.

Because an appositive phrase adds only extra, unnecessary information, it is always set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.”

Clearly, appositive phrases are instances of non-defining relative clauses which are reduced with the same sets of rules.

(Source: Communicate What You Mean: A Concise Advanced Grammar, 2nd Edition, by Carroll Washington Pollock Longman, 1997, pp. 149-150).
Reducing Adverbial Clauses
Same time
Time clauses with "while" and "when" can be reduced by deleting the subject and "be" verb.
• While I was eating dinner, I watched television.
• While eating dinner, I watched television.
• When you are in Rome, (you) do as the Romans do.
• When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
If there is no "be" verb, change the verb in the subordinating clause to its -ing form. Sometimes the subordinator (when or while) can be deleted as well.
• When I opened the door, I saw a strange sight.
• When opening the door, I saw a strange sight.
• Opening the door, I saw a strange sight.
Note: If the subjects are different, you may not reduce the adverbial clause.
• While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.
• (NOT) While taking a shower, my sister called from California.
Be careful when reducing time clauses that come at the end of sentences.
• We saw many beautiful birds while we were fishing in the lake.
• We saw many beautiful birds while fishing in the lake.
• (NOT) We saw many beautiful birds fishing in the lake.
In the last sentence, the meaning is ambiguous: Are we fishing or are the birds fishing?

Different times
• After I finished my homework, I went to bed.
• After finishing my homework, I went to bed.
• After I had finished my homework, I went to bed.
• After having finished my homework, I went to bed.
• Having finished my homework, I went to bed.
• Before he left the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.
• Before leaving the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.
Other clauses
Sometimes clauses with because can be reduced.
• Because he was a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.
• Being a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.
• As a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation
• Restrictive Clauses
• There are two types of relative clauses, restrictive and non-restrictive. Restrictive clauses specify which (of many) nouns the speaker is referring to. They do not require commas.
• For example,
• I have three brothers.
• My brother who lives in Virginia is a rocket scientist.
My brother who lives in Ohio is a civil engineer.
My brother who lives in Hawaii is a surfer.
• Each of the relative clauses in the above examples specifies a different brother. It tells “which one.”
• Non-restrictive clauses, on the other hand, are separated by commas. They merely give more information about the noun. In other words, they tell more about the same topic. The commas function as parentheses.
• I have one brother.
• My brother (who is from Oklahoma) is an architect.
My brother, who is from Oklahoma, is an architect.
Noun Clauses
Noun clause used as an object

He said something.

S V O

He said that he was sick.


Noun clause used as a subject

Something is your business.

S V

Whatever you do is your business.

Someone is still in the cafeteria.

S V

Whoever ate my lunch is still in the cafeteria.



What did he say?








What is your business?





Who is in the cafeteria?

The subordinator may take the "subject" or "object" position in a noun clause.
Note the usage of the following:
Henry loves Mary. (S V O)

Mary loves Jim. (S V O)

The person who(m) Lee loves is a secret.

The person who loves Tim is a secret.

Who(m) Henry loves is a secret.

Who loves Tim is a secret. Mary is the "object" of the sentence.
Mary is the "subject" of the sentence.
Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position)
Relative clause (subordinator in subj. position)
Noun clause (subordinator in obj. position)
Noun clause (subordinator in subj. position)
Subordinators which are used in noun clauses:
(Some of these words are also used in Grammar: Relative Clauses and Grammar: Wh - Questions.)
that
what
who
whoever
whatever
whether which
where
when
how
why
if how much
how many
how long
how far
how often
whose
Remember to preserve word order in noun clauses:
I don’t know who he is.
Whoever she is is not important.
Whatever is in the box is a mystery.
Can you tell me what he is doing?
She doesn't undestand why he is leaving.
I wonder how much that costs.
Do you know how long it will take?
Clauses and Phrases

Clauses consist of a Subject and Verb and sometimes a subordinating conjunction.
Roger went to Japan last summer.
After he went to Japan, Roger went to Korea.
Roger is the man who went to Japan last summer.
Whoever went to Japan had a great time. (Independent clause)
(Adverbial clause)

(Relative clause)

(Noun clause)


Phrases are groups of words without a complete subject or verb.
After Japan, Roger went to Korea.
After going to Japan, Roger went to Korea.
Having gone to Japan, Roger went to Korea. (Prepositional phrase)
(Participial phrase)

(Participial phrase)


Some clauses can be reduced to phrases by omitting certain words:
The man who is going to Japan is Roger.
The man going to Japan is Roger.
"When he was traveling to Japan, Roger met Lori.
When traveling to Japan, Roger met Lori.
When he was in Japan, Roger ate sashimi.
When in Japan, Roger ate sashimi.
In Japan, Roger ate sashimi. (Relative clause)

(Reduced)
(Adverbial clause)

(Reduced)

(Adverbial clause)

(Reduced)
(Prepositional ph
Introductory Phrases

Introductory phrases and clauses
John invited Mary to a movie. Mary had seen the movie twice already. Mary was reluctant to accept John’s invitation.
Because she had seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John’s invitation (to the movie).
Having seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John’s invitation.
Intermediary phrases and clauses
Senator James humbly submitted his resignation. The press hounded Senator James for months on charges of tax evasion.
Senator James, whom the press hounded for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his resignation.
Senator James, who was hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his resignation.
Senator James, hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his resignation.
Other
Mr. Smith swept the floor. Mr. Smith dusted the shelves. Mr. Smith turned out the lights. Then he left the building.
Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before he left the building.
Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before leaving the building.
Before leaving the building, Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights.
After sweeping the floor, dusting the shelves, and turning out the lights, Mr. Smith left the building.
Having swept the floor, dusted the shelves and turned out the lights, Mr. Smith left the building.
Participal Phrases

In Time Clauses:
While I was coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.
While coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.
Coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.
When she opened the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.
When opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.
Opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.

Before he left the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.
Before leaving the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.

*Make sure the subject of the main clause and the subject of the participial phrase are the same.
While taking a shower, my sister called from California. (INCORRECT)
While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.
While taking a shower, I received a call from my sister in California.

In Absolutes:
The vase was knocked over by the cat. It lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.
Knocked over by the cat, the vase lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.
The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, and it left the crumbs for the cockroaches.
The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, leaving the crumbs for the cockroaches.
The little boy was lost and afraid. He called for his mother.
The little boy, lost and afraid, called for his mother.
Lost and afraid, the little boy called for his mother.
Structure Words
Structure




Time
(When?)












Place
(Where?) Prepositions

Prep + Noun


In 1959
On Thursday
At 7:00
Before noon
After hours
During lunch
By 5:00
In the house
On the table
At the store Subordinators

Although S V, S V
S V although S V

When I was young
While you were here
Once he arrived
Before you went home
After I finish my work
As soon as I get there
By the time he arrived

Wherever you go
Anywere you want Coordinators

S V, and S V Sentence Connnectors


S V . However, S V
S V ; however, S V

(Location words: over, under, around, through, between, beside, beyond, etc.)
Manner
(How?)


Reason
(Why?)


Duration
(How long?)



Frequency
(How often?)



Contrast









Condition




Addition With a fork
Like a pig
By train

For fun
Because of the war

For two hours
Since last year




On Tuesdays





Despite my wishes
In spite of his illness






For pay only




With a friend As a good boy does


Because I want to
Since you are here
So that I could win

Until I finish
Since I was a young boy
As long as you want

Whenever you have time
Anytime you like
As often as you wish

Although I didn’t do it
Even though I didn't
Even if I could
While I didn't believe him
Whereas she did believe him

If you want me to
Unless I get paid
Whether you like it or not



So
For














But
Yet













And Therefore
Thus
Consequently

















However
Nevertheless
Still
Otherwise
On the other hand









Besides
Moreover
In addition
Furthermor
Parenthetical Statements

Statements in parentheses ( ) can be ignored when it comes to Subject-Verb agreement.
My husband (the doctor) works at Community Hospital.
My best friend (the one in the green shirt) wants to meet you.
Sometimes commas are used in place of parentheses:
His brother, John, lives in Sacramento.
My sister, who works in Miami, is visiting me this week.
Mr. Johnson, however, was not amused.
The teacher, along with her students, is coming to the party.
Prepositional phrases usually have no effect on Subject-Verb agreement.
The men in the car were shouting wildly.
The men in the cars were shouting wildly.
The books on the shelf next to the window are mine.
However, in some quantifying expressions, prepositional phrases do make a difference.
A lot of people are traveling to Belize these days.
A lot of milk was left in the refrigerator last night.
Some of the apples were rotten.
Some of the wine is too old.
None of the water is safe to drink.
Relative clauses can have an effect, depending on the meaning.
Mary is the one who takes care of applications.
Mary is one of the people who take care of applications.
One of the men who live there is deranged.
Absolutes
Absolutes show a special “how” relationship between two sentences. The two sentences are combined in a way that subordinates one to the other.
For example,
Mary was sitting at her desk. Her head was slightly lowered over a pile of chemistry notes.
Mary was sitting at her desk, her head slightly lowered over a pile of chemistry notes.
In order to construct an absolute, follow these steps:
1. Check to see if there is a “be” verb in the sentence you want to subordinate.
2. If there is a “be” verb, eliminate it and combine the sentences with a comma.
Julie accepted the award. Tears were streaming down her face.
Julie accepted the award, tears streaming down her face.
3. If the subjects are the same, delete the subject of the absolute as well. For example,
Julie accepted the award. Julie was overcome with emotion.
Julie accepted the award, overcome with emotion.
OR Overcome with emotion, Julie accepted the award.
4. If there is no “be” verb, change the main verb of the subordinating sentence into its -ing form. Then eliminate similar subjects and combine sentences with a comma.
Johnny ran after the bus. He waved his hands and whistled.
Johnny ran after the bus, waving his hands and whistling.
OR: Waving his hands and whistling, Johnny ran after the bus.
5. If there is a “possessive” relationship between the two sentences, use possessive pronouns (its his, their, etc.) to indicate the relationship between the subjects.
Active:
The cat confronted the burglar. It arched its back and bared its teeth.
The cat confronted the burglar, arching its back and baring its teeth.
Passive:
The cat confronted the burglar. Its back was arched and teeth were bared.
The cat confronted the burglar, its back arched and teeth bared.
Real Conditionals

Conditional sentences express a choice and the possible consequences of that choice.
There are three types of conditional sentences: Real, Unreal and Unreal Past. The first type is the easiest to learn. It involves a present choice and a future consequence.
If you drive north for three miles, you will get to Columbus.
If he doesn’t exercise, Fred will gain weight.
If you purchase a raffle ticket, you might win a car.
Real conditional sentences contain two parts, the if clause, and the result clause.
The if clause indicates the choice and is expressed in present tense. It indicates a choice and can be either positive or negative. If statements can also imply the opposite choice and result.
If you study hard you will pass the test.
If you don’t study hard, you could fail. (Choice and possible result)

(Implied opposite choice and result)

The result clause indicates the consequence or possible consequence, and is expressed in future tense or with modals can, could or might.
If clause
If you eat your spinach,
If I quit my job,
If Troy moves to Hollywood, Result clause
you will grow stronger.
I can spend more time with the kids.
he might become a movie star.
Present unreal conditionals

Present unreal conditionals indicate a situation which is only imagined or in some-one's mind. For instance:
I wish I had a pony.
If I had a pony, I would ride it every day. (I don’t really have a pony.)
(I imagine what I would do.)
To form present unreal conditionals, use past tense in the if clause and would + verb in the main clause.
A: What would you do if you had a million dollars?
B: If I had a million dollars, I would invest it in the stock market.
A: What would you do if you didn’t have to come to school today?
B: If I didn’t have to come to school, I would go to the amusement park.

For present unreal conditionals, it is common to use were in place of all forms of “be” in the if clause (regardless of the subject).
If I were you, I would get a lawyer.
If I were a lawyer, I would not charge you.
If she were a lawyer, Sheila would be rich.

Sometimes could can be used in place of would in the main clause:
If I had more free time, I could travel around the world.
Past Conditionals

Past conditionals are used when talking about decisions or actions that you wish had been different. They indicate hypothetical situations from the past using “if” statements.
To form the past conditional, use past perfect in the “if” clause. Verbs in the main clause will depend on whether you are referring to the present or the past.
For example*
I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. Now I feel terrible.
If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t feel so terrible now.
(past action and present consequence)
I wish I hadn’t drunk so much last night. I felt terrible then.
If I hadn’t drunk so much last night, I wouldn’t have felt so terrible.
(past action and past consequence)
I wish I had left home sooner. I was late for the party last night.
If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t have been late for the party.
(past action and past consequence)
I wish I had left home sooner. Now I am stuck in traffic.
If I had left home sooner, I wouldn’t be stuck in traffic.
(past action and present consequence)

Present Wishes

Present wishes indicate something that is “contrary to fact.” That is, wishes are something that is untrue but desired. For example,
I wish that I had a sports car.

I wish that I were a doctor. (The truth is I don’t have a sports car.)
(I’m really not a doctor.)
For present wishes, the past tense is used in the that clause, because it indicates a situation that is only imagined. Sometimes the word that is omitted.
She wishes (that) she had a diamond ring.
He wishes (that) he were rich.
To express possibility (can) and future intention (will), use the modals could and would respectively.
She wishes that she could sing.
They wish that she would stop.
When a “be” verb is required, the word were is used, regardless of the subject.
We wish you were here.
I wish (that) I were taller. ast Wishes
Past wishes indicate things we imagine would have been different in the past, although we cannot change them. For past wishes, use the past perfect in the that clause.
I wish (that) I had gone to Cincinnati
He wishes that he had been elected chairman.
They wish they had won the lottery.

past Wishes
Past wishes indicate things we imagine would have been different in the past, although we cannot change them. For past wishes, use the past perfect in the that clause.
I wish (that) I had gone to Cincinnati
He wishes that he had been elected chairman.
They wish they had won the lottery.
Hope vs. Wish
Wish is most commonly used in hypothetical (or imagined) situations:
I wish that I had a dog. (I don't really have a dog, but if I did, I would be happy.)
I wish (that) you were here. (Unfortunately, you're not, and I miss you.)
Sometimes wish is used in greeting and expressions of goodwill:
We wish you a "Merry Christmas."
They wished him "Happy Birthday."
Wish me luck. (S V IO DO)
Hope can also be used in expressions of goodwill, but the grammar is slightly different:
I hope (that) you have a Merry Christmas.
I hope (that) you had a nice Birthday. (some time in the future)
(some time in the past)
Hope can be used to specify a desired outcome. For future hopes, the possibilities remain open, but for past hopes, the outcome has usually been determined already.
I hope you can come to the party on Saturday.
I was hoping that you would come to the party.
I had hoped to see you at the party on Saturday.
I hope to get an A on the exam.
I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow.
He hopes to be elected President.
She hoped you wouldn't find her. (future possibility)

(but you didn't make it)

(but I didn't)

(it is still possible)
(although it might)
(it could happen)
(but you probably did)
Wish and hope are also used in certain types of requests and pleasantries. In such situations, wish carries a more definite and formal tone.
I wish to see the doctor.
I hope to see you again. (right now)
(anytime in the future)
Go + Ving
Some activities are commonly expressed in English by the phrase Go + Ving. See the list below.
go camping go hiking go fishing go hunting
go swimming go diving go surfing go snorkeling
go water skiing go scuba diving go wind surfing
go skiing go snowboarding go (ice) skating
go shopping go bowling go roller skating
go jogging go running go rollerblading go skateboarding
go sky diving go parachuting go parasailing
Examples:
A: Would you like to go skiing this weekend?
B: No, I’d rather go ice skating.

A: Did you go bowling last night?
B: Actually, I went shopping instead.

Common mistakes:
I want to camping on Saturday. (Incorrect)
I want to go camping on Saturday. (Correct)
They went to jogging this morning. (Incorrect)
They went jogging this morning. (Correct)
I like to swimming. (Incorrect)
I like to swim. (Okay)
I like swimming. (Okay)
I like to go swimming. (Okay)
I like going swimming. (Okay)
Gerunds

Gerunds are defined as the –ing form of a verb. They have several functions.
1. Used as subjects and complements
Skiing is my favorite sport.
Hiking can be very strenuous.
Seeing is believing
2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions
Thanks for tending my children.
The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone.
3. Used as objects following certain verbs*.
The children enjoyed watching the parade.
Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late.
Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own:
Roland is afraid of making mistakes.
Sandy is considering leaving New York.
*These verbs are commonly followed by gerunds.
admit
begin
discuss
hate
love
practice
regret
stop advise
can't help
dislike
hesitate
mention
prefer
remember
suggest anticipate
complete
enjoy
imagine
mind
quit
resent
threaten appreciate
consider
finish
intend
miss
recall
resist
tolerate attempt
delay
forget
keep
neglect
recollect
risk
try avoid
deny
go
like
postpone
recommend
start
understand
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Related Grammar Topics
• Infinitives
• To V or Not To V
Grammar Exercises
More Grammar Topics
• Grammar Index
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Infinitives

Infinitives are defined as to + base form of the verb. They have several functions.
1. Used as subjects and subject complements.
To know me is to love me.
To live in Hawaii is my lifetime dream.
2. Used as objects following certain verbs*.
I wanted to tell you how much I appreciated your gift.
He hesitated to ask the embarrassing question.
3. Used as a shortened form of in order to.
You must take this medicine (in order) to get well.
I went to the bank to cash a check.
Infinitives can sometimes take objects of their own.
We hope to find the person who did this.
I was asked to make a dessert for the potluck dinner.
*These verbs are commonly followed by infinitives.
afford
beg
decide
forget
intend
mean
prepare
seem
threaten agree
begin
demand
go
know how
need
pretend
start
try appear
care
deserve
happen
learn
neglect
promise
stop
volunteer arrange
choose
desire
hate
like
offer
refuse
struggle
wait ask
claim
expect
hesitate
love
plan
regret
swear
want attempt
consent
fail
hope
manage
prefer
remember
tend
wish
o V or Not To V
The word “to” is often confusing in English. It can be used as part of a modal expression, infinitive or as a preposition.

Note the usage of “to” in the following sentences.
To V
I used to live in Utah.
I am supposed to go.
I hope to see you. To V ing
I am used to living in Utah.
I am opposed to going.
I look forward to seeing you.

Modal expressions are always followed by the base form of the verb.
ought to
have to
have got to
used to be to
be able to
be supposed to
be going to

Similar expressions are followed by infinitives (to + V)
need to V
want to V
hope to V
happen to V
mean to V
tend to V
care to V
wish to V
would like to V be allowed to V
be inclined to V
be reluctant to V
be willing to V
be happy to V
be afraid to V
be required to V
be delighted to V
be compelled to V

Many prepositional combinations using “to” are followed by gerunds.
look forward to V ing
resort to V ing
submit to V ing
confess to V ing
give in to V ing
admit to V ing
with regards to V ing be accustomed to V ing
be addicted to V ing
be opposed to V ing
be limited to V ing
be dedicated to V ing
be commited to V ing
be used to V ing
Problems with Verbs

1. Subject – Verb Agreement
Third person singular -s
That man live in California. (wrong)
That man lives in California. (correct)
2. Wrong tense
Watch for key “time words” and phrases
Yesterday I go to the dance. (wrong)
Yesterday I went to the dance. (correct)
3. Passive and non-passive expressions
Extra “be”
What was happened last night? (wrong)
What happened last night? (correct)
Omitted “be”
I concerned about my grades. (wrong)
I am concerned about my grades. (correct)
4. Modal usage
Insertion of “to”
I had better to go. (wrong)
I had better go. (correct)
Non-base form after modal
I could played basketball. (wrong)
I could play basketball. (correct)
5. Wrong word choice
I have met Johanna for five years. (wrong)
I have known Johanna for five years. (correct)
The Verb "Be"
The verb “be” takes on different forms in the present and past.



I
He
She
It
You
They
we Present

am
is
is
is
are
are
are Contraction

'm
's
's
's
're
're
're Past

was
was
was
was
were
were
were
The verb “be” indicates existence, temporary condition or permanent status.
It is really hot today.
Grady’s not here right now.
Greg and Tim are engineers.
Trudy was sick yesterday.
Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean.

The base form is be, the past participle is been, and the –ing form is being
I’ll be back tomorrow.
He has been a doctor since 1998.
She is being nice today.

The verb “be” is also used in progressive tenses, passives and prepositional collocations:
Progressive tenses:
He is writing a letter to his brother.
Jeff was cleaning the house this morning.
The Holleys have been living there since April.
Passive voice:
The people were surprised by the news.
Craig was stopped by the policeman.
Prepositional collocations:
Tracy is fond of chocolates.
Cassie is not afraid of snakes.
I’m interested in making money
Collective Nouns
Some nouns can be used with either “singular” or plural “verbs,” depending on whether the speaker is referring to them as a one group or individually.
Examples of collective nouns are:
group family committee team management

The committee has not made a decision yet.
The committee have not made a decision yet.
The team is posing for a photograph.
The team are signing autographs. (It will submit one conclusion as a group.)
They are still arguing among themselves.)
(as a group)
(as individuals)

Be careful when using collective nouns with pronouns.
The Jones family is having a reunion this Sunday. It meets every summer.
The Jones family are going home on Monday. They all live in different states.
Count/Non-Count Nouns
Count nouns have two forms: singular and plural. They can be used with numbers and quantifying expressions such as many, several, and few.
One potato two potatoes several potatoes few potatoes
When used as subjects in present tense sentences, count nouns require the –s form of the verb in the singular and the base form of the verb in the plural.
The dog sleeps. The dogs sleep. The bear has large claws.

Non-count nouns have only one form. When used as subjects in present tense sentences, non-count nouns require the –s form of the verb.
Juice contains many vitamins. Honesty is the best policy.

Some nouns can be either count or non-count.
Job experience is essential.
Milk contains calcium. Some experiences can be funny.
Two milks, please. (informal)

Both count and non-count nouns can be quantified. That is, they can be used with expressions which divide them into parts or groups which can be counted. For example,
Two apples
One cookie
milk
sugar Two bags of apples
A box of cookies
Two cartons of milk
A cup of sugar

Sometimes a non-count noun is used to indicate a “group” of items, whereas individual items within the group are countable. For example,
Non-count
Money
Time
Clothing
Furniture
Luggage Count
dollars, bills, fives, cents, dimes, coins
years, months, days, hours, minutes
dresses, pants, shirts, socks, shoes
tables, chairs, sofas, lamps
suitcases, briefcases, bags, carry-ons
Singular vs. Plural
English nouns can be classified as count (singular and plural) and non-count.
The singular form is used when considering the noun as a single item (count) or entity (non-count).
brick dog airplane person foot water sugar truth education
The plural form is used when considering more than one of the same item. Non-count nouns do not have a plural form.
bricks dogs airplanes people feet
Things to be aware of: Regular plurals
Most plurals are formed by adding –s or –es to the singular noun:
boys cars pens pills pronounce /z/
cats rocks tips chiefs pronounce /s/
kisses watches boxes dishes pronounce /Iz/
In some cases, there are special spelling rules that need to be considered when forming the plural.
knives hobbies quizzes
Irregular plurals
Some nouns take on a different form in the plural:
women teeth mice children people
Non-count nouns
Non-count nouns do not have a plural form; however, some nouns can be used in both the count and non-count sense:
I have a lot of experience. I have a lot of experiences.

Third-person singular –s
Singular and non-count nouns (in the third person) require the –s form of the verb in the present tense.
The girl loves painting.
My dog likes to eat meat.
Johnny lives next door to Jenny.
Milk contains nutrients.
Tommy has two hobbies.
Jerry is from Colorado.
Singular count nouns require an article (the, a, an) unless
they are “proper” nouns
Mr. Jones went to Arizona.
they are preceded by a possessive
My mother loves my father.
they are preceded by this, that, each, every, either, neither, or one.
Each man contributed one dollar.
(Wrong: Apple is on table.—articles are required)
The/An apple is on the table. (right)
Plural nouns and singular non-count nouns do not require an article in the “generic” sense:
Water is important for plants.
However, they require articles (the, some) in most other cases.
Please put some wine in the glasses
Plurals and Nationalities

Why do we say but we say
The Russians are here.*
The Koreans are here.
The Americans are here
The Italians are here.
The New Zealanders are here
The Pakistanis are here. The Chinese are here.*
The Japanese are here.
The British are here.
The Swiss are here.
The French are here.
The Portuguese are here.

It’s mostly phonetic. That is, it depends on the final sound of the word.
Words ending in

-an, -ian, -er, -i

require an –s in the plural Words ending in

-ese, -ish, -iss, -ch

do not change

Languages (no article)
Russian is easy.
Korean is easy.
Italian is easy. Chinese is easy.
Japanese is easy.
French is easy.

Generalizations**
Russians are friendly

Koreans are friendly.

New Zealanders are friendly. The Chinese are friendly.
Chinese people are friendly.
The Japanese are friendly.
Japanese people are friendly.
The French are friendly.
Frenchmen are friendly.

*If you are talking about a specific group (of Russians, etc.), the article the must be used.
Most of the Italians (in this class) are female.
Most of the Japanese (in the restaurant) are from Kyoto.
**If you are talking generally, no article or preposition is needed.
With 's' Most Americans speak English. Not: Most of Americans
No 's' Most Vietnamese live in
Noun and Verb Phrases
Noun Phrases are groups of words that can function as subjects or objects in sentences.
They may take on various forms:
Water is important for survival. (Single words)
Mr. Jones spoke to Dr. James. (Proper names)
The boy ate an apple. (Nouns and articles)
My friend works with her father. (Nouns and possessives)
The young girl wore a long, white dress. (Nouns and adjectives)
Some of the kids ate all of the cake. (Nouns and quantifiers)
The man with the gun frightened the people in the bank. (Nouns and prep. phrases)
The woman who lives there is my aunt. (Nouns and relative clauses)
The dogs sleeping on the deck should be left alone. (Nouns and phrases)
Whoever wrote this is in trouble. (Noun clauses)
Pronouns and similar words can also function as subjects and objects:
He gave the money to us.
Someone left this.
Give me one of each.

Verb Phrases
Verb phrases are groups of words that express action or state of being. They take on
various forms.
The men live in the dormitory. (Single verbs)
He stayed at the Hi Hat Hotel. (Past tense verbs)
I am learning many new things. (Progressive verbs)
She has been there before. (Perfect verbs)
They have been working here five years. (Perfect progressive verbs)
I could use some assistance. (Verbs and modals)
The trip was approved by the professor. (Passive verbs)
Do you want some more pie? (Verbs in questions)

Other words can be added to enhance verb phrases:
The mayor works here. (adverbs)
Neil is not a candidate. (negatives)
They live in the suburbs. (prepositional phrases)
She'll leave whenever she wants. (adverbial clauses)
Don't talk while eating.
Pronouns
Pronouns are used in place of nouns. They enable speakers to refer to something or someone without having to repeat its name.
Example:
Mr. Jones lives in Kentucky. He frequently travels to Memphis to see his wife. She is a lawyer and only sees him on weekends.
The subject and object pronouns in English are as follows:
Subject
I
You
He
She
It
We
They Object
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
Them
Use subject pronouns when the pronoun refers to the doer of the action or the main topic (subject) of the sentence.
Henry hit a baseball over the fence.
He didn’t know where it would land.
It went right through Mrs. Crabby’s window.
She was furious. She called Henry’s parents and told them what happened.
Henry had to pay for the window with his hard-earned money.
He wasn’t too happy about that, but he learned a lesson.
Now, he only plays baseball at the ball park.
Use object pronouns when the pronoun refers to the receiver of the action or is the object of a prepositional phrase.
Ms. Lindon met her husband in a gold mine.
The first time she saw him, she was in love.
He also liked everything about her.
He asked her to marry him the next day.
Many friends joined them in the wedding celebration.
Reminders: Do not use subject pronouns in the object position or vice versa.
WRONG:
Correct:
WRONG:
Correct: Give the balloon to he.
Give the balloon to him.
Her is the one I want to see.
She is the one I want to see.
Remember to use he/him when referring to males and she/her when referring to females!
WRONG:
Correct:
WRONG:
Correct: Mary lived on a farm. He had a little lamb.
Mary lived on a farm. She had a little lamb.
Mr. Smith has gone to Washington. I'll give her the message.
Mr. Smith has gone to Washington. I'll give him the message.
Possessives

Possessives take many forms in English.
Pronouns in the possessive case can be used as adjectives to modify nouns or stand alone as subjects, objects or complements. For example,
My book is on the table.
Mine is on the table.
I put mine in the refrigerator.
The red one is mine. (used to modify a noun)
(used as a subject)
(used as an object)
(used as a complement)

See the table below.
Pronouns as adjectives

my
his
her
its
your
our
their Pronouns as subjects, objects and complements
mine
his
hers
its (not common)
yours
ours
theirs

The possessive is formed by adding ‘s to singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s. Such possessives can be used as modifiers, or they can stand alone.
It is John’s bicycle.
Those are the children’s toys.
Jack’s is the white one.
I’m going to Joe’s.
With plural nouns ending in –s, only an apostrophe (‘) is used to form the possessive.
The girls’ bicycles are in the repair shop.
All the students’ books were stolen
here is/are

There is/There are is a common phrase in English, used to indicate that something “exists” or is in a certain location. The main subject follows the verb when there is/are is used.
There is an apple on the table.
There are some apples on the table.
Other forms of “be” can also be used with there is/there are.
There will be a party at Bill’s house on Saturday.
There were four witnesses at the crime scene.
There have been two robberies in the last five months.
Contractions are possible, but they are mostly used informally in speech.
There’s a fly in my soup.
There’re plenty of oranges left.
There’ll be a lot of people in attendance.
There’s is by far the most common contraction, and it is sometimes used inadvertently with plural subjects by native speakers.
There’s ten people outside!
Common mistakes
Since the expression there is/are usually has no equivalent in other languages, students sometimes use have instead.
Have a lot of food on the table.
It has a lot of food on the table.
There have a lot of food on the table.
There is a lot of food on the table. (Incorrect)
(Incorrect)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
Adverbs
Adverbs are used to describe actions. They may come before or after a verb, but not between a verb and its object.
Mrs.Jenner sang softly. (Most common word order.)
Mrs. Jenner softly sang. (Also possible.)
Mrs. Jenner softly sang a lullaby.
Mrs. Jenner sang a lullaby softly.
Mrs. Jenner sang softly a lullaby. (Not correct.)

Adverbs may come between a main verb and its auxiliaries.
Mrs. Jenner is softly singing a lullaby.
Mrs. Jenner softly is singing a lullaby. (Not correct.)
Mrs. Jenner has been softly singing that lullaby for a long time.

Some time and frequency adverbs are “movable.” That is, they can be placed at various points in a sentence.
Yesterday I visited the dentist.
I visited the dentist yesterday.
Jack Prompt is here already.
Jack Prompt is already here.

Caution:
Even though some adverbs can be used in certain sentence positions, others can not.
I yesterday visited the dentist. (Not okay.)
I already visited the dentist. (Okay.)
Already I visited the dentist. (Not okay.)

Adverbs such as quite, very, really, extremely, and absolutely are used to modify adjectives and other adverbs.
They come directly before the words they describe.

Greg is quite happy with his new boss.

Sue eats very slowly.

You’re absolutely right!

Many adverbs can be formed by adding –ly to adjectives:
Carl is a quick runner.
Carl runs quickly.

Some adverbs are identical to adjectives in form. Others are completely different.
Carl is a fast runner. (Adjective)
Carl runs fast. (Adverb) Jill is a good student. (Adjective)
Jill studies well. (Adverb)
Adverbs and Prepositions
Adverbs are words or groups of words which tell time, place, frequency or manner.
I ate my lunch yesterday.
I ate at that restaurant last week. She went there.
She went downtown.
Prepositions are usually followed by objects in prepositional phrases. They can also be used to indicate time, place, frequency, duration, reason, manner, or to show contrast.
I ate my lunch at noon.
I ate in the cafeteria. She went to the store.
She walked into the house.

*Do not use adverbs as objects of prepositions.
Incorrect: Correct:
I went to somewhere.
I was busy at last night.
John works in downtown.
She came to home on yesterday. I went somewhere.
I was busy last night.
John works downtown.
She came home yesterday.
Be careful with words such as home, downtown, today, next/last week, etc. which are sometimes used as adverbs and sometimes used as nouns.
As adverbs As nouns
I will go back tomorrow.
She went home last night.
Next week I will travel to Iowa. Tomorrow is another day.
They built a home in Oregon.
Next week is my vacation.
repositions

Prepositions indicate relationships between words or ideas. Most prepositions deal with location and are easy to learn.
above
inside
beside
near
up
before*
with
into
between
like
despite below
outside
beyond
nearby
down
after*
without
out (of)
among
as
in spite of over
around
behind
by
toward
during
within
off
except
than
beneath under
through
in front of
next to
along (side)
since*
until*
upon
but*
about
underneath

*These can also be used as conjunctions.
Some prepositions, however, have more than one meaning and can be very confusing.
in
to on
from at
for of

Generally, in, on and at indicate location. See also: Prepositions of Location
To and from imply movement toward or away from something. However, to can also function as part of an infinitive. See also: Infinitives.
To and for can introduce indirect objects. See also: Indirect Objects
For and since can also indicate duration. See also: Present Perfect Progessive
Of is used in partitives (all of, some of . . .) and other expressions. See also: Quantifiers
Many prepositions are also used in expressions. See also: Grammar: Preposition Collocations with "Be"; Verb and Preposition Collocations
Prepositions of Location
The most common prepositions of location are
in outside (of)
on between
at beside
by beyond
near in front of
nearby in back of
above behind
below next to
over on top of
under within
up beneath
down underneath
around among
through along
inside against

These prepositions are most commonly followed by "the" and a noun. Both the speaker and the listener likely know which object is being referred to.
Examples,
The keys are on the table. (We both know which table.)
The post office is next to the bakery. (Not: next to bakery)
Occasionally, prepositions can be used with "a/an." This usually indicates that the speaker knows of the place, but the listener does not.
For example,
I live by a river. (You probably don't know which one.)
I live by the river. (You know the river I'm talking about.
Prepositions: In, On, and At
Prepositions: In, On, and At (with specific times and places)
The prepositions in, on, and at can be used to indicate time and place. Notice how they are used in the following situations:

Preposition Time Place
In Year, Month,
In 1999, In December Country, State, City
In Japan, In Utah, InTaipei
On Day, Date
On Saturday, On May 1 Street
On Main Street, On 1st Ave.
At Time
At 8:00, At 7:30 Address
At 815 East Main Street


In many languages, there is only one preposition for the above situations. In English there are three. Just remember that in usually indicates the “largest” time or place, and at usually indicates the “smallest” time or place.
Examples:
A: Where’s your office?
B: In Taipei, Taiwan.
A: Really? What part of Taipei?
B: It’s on Chung Shan North Road.
A: I know that area. Where exactly is it?
B: It’s at 105 Chung Shan North Road, next to the bookstore.


C: When is the wedding?
D: It’s in June.
C: What day?
D: It’s on Saturday, the 25th.
C: What time?
D: It starts at 6:00.



Prepositions with articles and locations
When talking about locations, use at to indicate the general vicinity or area, and in to indicate inside the building, enclosed area, etc. For example:
at the swimming pool (on site) in the swimming pool (in the
pool itself i.e. in the water)
at the post office/bank (general) in the post office/bank (inside the building)
at the zoo (visitors—general area) in the zoo (animals in their cages)
at school in the classroom

Sample sentences:
I met my wife at the theater. (while watching a movie)
I spilled my drink in the theater (on the floor of the building)
She works at the library on Wednesdays.
She found a rare coin in the library (building).
Dr. Jones works at the hospital every day.
John was in the hospital for a week with a broken leg.
For school, prison, and church, the is used to indicate the building. No article indicates the general situation. Note the following:
"practice"/situation building
in school (studying, listening to teacher, etc.) in the school (building)
in jail/prison (staying there as a criminal) in the jail/prison (temporary)
in church (praying, listening to a sermon, etc.) in the church (building)

Where’s Dad?
in church (attending services) in the church (fixing the windows)
at church at the church
in prison (He committed a crime.) at the prison (visiting his friend)
Prepositions and Time Words

General
In (year, month) In 1989, in December
On (day, date) On monday, on Dec. 14, 2001
At (time) At 7:00, at 8:30
During (decade, long time period) During the 1960s, during the 20th Century

Specific Time: “When?” (Use simple tenses.)
When did you eat your breakfast? I ate my breakfast at 9:00.
When were you born? I was born in 1979.
When is your birthday party? My birthday party is on Friday.
When will you graduate? I wil graduate in June.

Ongoing Action
Mr. Barnes is watching television now.
While he was watching television, the phone rang.
He will be watching television tonight when his wife gets home.

Duration: "How Long?"
How long have you been in the U.S.? I have been here since 1999/for two years.
How long were you in California? I was in California for three weeks.
How long will you be in Maine? I will be there for a month.

Completed Action
I have finished my homework already. (before now)
After I had finished my homework, I started to cook dinner.
I will have finished my homework, when I start to cook dinner.

Notes:
In + (amount of time) usually refers to the future: I will see you in two days (from now).
But it can also indicate a length of time: I finished the job in two hours.


Ago follows time word(s) and is used to indicate the amount of time before the present:
I called her two weeks ago. She returned my call five minutes ago.

Words indicating actions occurring at the “same” time (or nearly the same time)
When When I was in high school, I had a car.
As soon as As soon as I got to the theater, I looked for a seat.
Once Once I finish my geometry, I will start studying chemistry.
The moment (that) The moment (that) I saw her, I knew who she was.

Words indicating actions occurring at “different” times
Before Before my husband left, I had already packed his bags.
After After she eats her dinner, Ms. Warner will go shopping.
By the time By the time I get to Denver, I will have traveled 200 miles.
Until I cleaned the house until my wife came home
Preposition Collocations with Be
be absent from be absolved of be accepted as/to
be according to be accused of be accustomed to
be acquainted with be adamant about be addicted to
be affected by be afraid of be after
be alarmed at be aligned with be (all) set for
be amazed at/by be an authority on be angry about/at/with
be annoyed at/with be anxious about be appropriate for
be armed with be around be arrested for
be ashamed of be associated with be astonished at/by
be at it (again) be attached to be attracted to
be aware of be away from

be back (from) be bad at be bad for
be banned from be based (up)on be behind (schedule)
be bent on be biased about be big on
be blamed for be blessed with be bored with
be bound for

be capable of be carried away about/with be caught up in
be centered around be certain of be charged with
be classified as be clear about be clear to
be clever at be close to be cluttered (up) with
be a combination of be compared to be compensated for
be composed of be comprised of be concerned about/with
be confident of be confused about be congratulated for/on
be connected to/with be conned into be considerate of
be considered for be content with be contrary to
be convenient for/to be convinced of be convicted of/for
be coordinated with be covered with be crammed into
be crazy about be credited with be criticized for/as
be crowded with

be dedicated to be delighted with be dependent (up)on
be devoted to be different from/than be disappointed about/at/in/with
be discouraged about be discriminated against be disgusted with
be disillusioned with be disqualified for be disposed of
be distinguished from be divided into be divorced (from)
be done with be down be down on/with
be dragged into be dressed (up) in be drunk with/on

be east of be elected as/to be eligible for
be embarrassed about/at be encouraged by be entailed in
be engaged to/in be entrusted with be envious of
be equal/equivalent to be equipped with be estranged from
be evicted from be excited about be expelled from

be faithful to be faced with be familiar with/to
be famous for be fanatic(al) about be fascinated with
be fed up with be filled with be finished with
be fired for/from be followed by be fond of
be for the sake of be fraught with be free from/of
be friendly to/with be frightened by/at be full of
be furnished with

be glad to be good at be good to
be gone to/with be grateful for/to be guilty of

be half-hearted about be hailed as be happy about/with
be hard on be headed for/to/toward be hired as/for
be hitched to

be immersed in be imposed (up)on be impressed by/with
be in be in accordance with be in agreement with
be an indication of be an issue of be in back of
be in bed with be in cahoots with be in charge of
be in common with be in conjunction with be in contact with
be in control of be in danger of be in exchange for
be in favor of be in front of be in honor of
be in hope(s) of be in love with be in need of
be in on be in place of be in possession of
be in proximity to be in reference to be in regard to
be in response to be in return for be in search of
be in store for be in sync with be in tandem with
be in the habit of be in the middle of be in the midst of
be in the vicinity of be in time for be in touch with
be in trouble with/for be in tune with be incensed with
be inducted into be inferior to be infested with
be informed about be innocent of be insecure about
be insistent (up)on be interested in be into
be involved in be irritated at/with be isolated from

be jealous of

be kind of be kind to be knowledgeable about
be known as/for

be labeled as be leery of be left of/with
be less than be limited to be located at/near
be lower than

be mad at/about be made of/from be married to
be a matter of be the matter with be mean to
be meant to be a measure of be mindful of
be more than

be named as/after be next to be nice to
be notorious for be north of be nuts about

be obedient to be oblivious about/to be obsessed with
be obvious to be off be okay with
be on be on behalf of be on the brink of
be on the edge of be on the verge of be on time for
be on to be on top of be open about/for/to
be opposed to be opposite from be oppressed by
be out be out of be out of concern for
be out of contact with be out of sync with be out of touch with
be outraged about be outspoken about be over with

be parallel to be partial to be patient with
be a pattern of be pegged as be perturbed at/about
be pleased with be polite to be popular with
be praised for/about be precious to be preoccupied with
be prepared for be prohibited from be promoted to
be provided with be proud of be psyched about
be punished for be put off by

be qualified for be a question of

be ready for be regarded as be related to
be relevant to be relieved of be remembered for
be rescued from be reserved for be responsible for
be retired from be rid of be rife with
be right to be riled up (about) be roped into
be rude to

be satisfied with be saved from be scared of
be selected as/for be sensible about be separated from
be set on be shocked at be short of
be sick of/about be a sign of be similar to
be soft on be sorry about/for be sort of
be south of be specialized in be spoken for
be startled at be strange to be a stranger to
be stressed out about be stuck on/with be stunned at
be subject to be sufficient for be suitable for
be superior to be sure of be surprised at/about
be suspected of be suspended from be a symbol of

be taken aback by/at be taken in by be tantamount to
be tapped as/by be terrified of/with be there for
be a threat to be through with be ticked off about
be tired of be tuned (in)to be to the left of
be to the right of

be uncalled for be under arrest be under fire for
be under investigation for be up against be up front with
be up in arms about be up on be up to
be upset about/with be uptight about be used for
be used to be useful to

be valued as/at be vindicated of

be wary of/about be west of be whipped into
be wiped out be with it be with reference to
be with respect to be worked up about be worried about
be wrapped up in be wrong with
asic Modals
Modal auxiliary verbs are used to moderate the main verb, that is to enhance or restrict the verb to a certain context.
The most common modal auxiliaries in English are:
can may might must
could should will would
Notice the usage of modals in the following sentences:
I pay my taxes. General declaration of fact. Paying taxes is something I normally do.
I can pay my taxes. Expresses ability. I have the means (funds) to pay.
I might pay my taxes. Expresses possibility, but not certainty. Maybe I will pay; maybe I won't.
I will pay my taxes. Expresses future intent. I resolve to do it at some later time.
I should pay my taxes. Expresses mild obligation. It is required, and I expect to comply.
I could pay my taxes. Expresses possibility. If I have nothing else to do with the money, I might pay taxes.
I would pay my taxes. (In this case), expresses reservation. If I had the money (but I don't). . .
I must pay my taxes. Expresses strong obligation. I am required and have to comply.
Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are not used alone unless there is a clear connection to a main verb.
He must to finish his homework.
He must finish his homework.
Jack could heard the bell.
Jack could hear the bell.
Penny will going to the movie.
Penny will go to the movie. WRONG
RIGHT
WRONG
RIGHT
WRONG
RIGHT

There are many ways to make requests in English. The most common involves using the imperative and modals. See the examples below:

Using the Imperative
The imperative is the simple form of the verb. The
subject of an imperative sentence is understood as "you" although it is usually not spoken.
Open the door.
Will you help me?
Pick up your toys.
Please help me. (You) open the door.
Yes, I will (help you).
(You) pick up your toys.
(You) please help me.


The imperative is often used by persons of authority when speaking to subordinates, e.g. parent to child.

Using Modals
To show respect and politeness, most people use modal
expressions when making requests. For example:
Will you...?
Would you...?
Would you please...?
Could you (please)...?
Could you possibly...?
Would you kindly...?
Would you mind (Ving )...?
Would you be so kind as to...? Will you open the door for me?
Would you open the door for me?
Would you please open the door (for me)?
Could you (please)...? Could you (please) open the door?
Could you possibly open the door?
Would you kindly open the door?
Would you mind opening the door?
Would you be so kind as to open the door?

Common Problems with Modals
1. Using "to" unnecessarily:
Incorrect
They going to meet us at the theater.
He should to eat his dinner.
I had better to go now.
You must not to use that pencil. Correct
They are going to meet us at the theater.
He should eat his dinner.
I had better go now.
You must not use that pencil.
2. Using anything but the base form after a modal:
John could heard the bell.
Penny will going to the movie. John could hear the bell.
Penny will go to the movie.
3. Using double modals:
You should ought to speak English.
She might can help me. You ought to speak English. /should speak
She might be able to help me.
4. Omitting "be" in certain modal expressions:
They going to meet us at the theater.
Jack supposed to take his medicine. They are going to meet us at the theater.
Jack is supposed to take his medicine.
5. Using wrong word order in questions:
How I can help you?
Where I should go for the meeting? How can I help you?
Where should I go for the meeting?

Past Modals
Past modals come in two forms. The first type is the easiest and usually requires only a simple word change:
I can drive. (present ability)
I could drive when I was 16. (past ability)
I have to go to California. (present obligation)
I had to go to California. (past obligation)
Lenny will pay tomorrow. (future intention)
Lenny said he would pay tomorrow. (future reported from the past)
Past modals with "have"
Some past modals can be formed by using have + the past participle of the main verb immediately after the modal. (should have, could have, would have, etc.)
However, since modals express possibility, intention, obligation, etc., they do not always indicate a definite tense. Therefore, when using past modals with have, special meanings need to be considered.
I should go to the funeral. (I feel an obligation to go later.)
I should have gone to the funeral. (I didn't go. Now I regret it.)
Lex might take Karen to the airport. (It's a future possibility.)
Lex might have taken Karen to the airport. (He may be on his way there now.)
Lex could have taken Karen to the airport. (Most likely he didn't.)
Lex would have taken Karen to the airport. (He didn't. He had an excuse.)
Otis didn't come to work yesterday. (past fact)
He had to take care of his children. (past obligation)
His children must have been sick. (conjecture about the past)
Common Modal Usage
Using Simple Tenses and Modals
To state facts
Present Past Modal
Lions live in Africa. Dinosaurs roamed the earth for millions of years. Mr. Jones can juggle.
Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. My grandmother passed away last March. He couldn’t swim at age 10.

To express opinions
(I think) smoking is a disgusting habit. That was delicious. Gambling should be banned in the US.
The Internet is more useful than the library. I thought she gave an excellent performance. He must really like ice cream.
I think it was a beautiful concert. You should have left earlier.

To indicate actions which occur every day or on a regular basis
I get up at 7:30 every day. When I was in high school, I got up at 6:30. I have to be at the office at 7.
My father drives to work on Tuesdays. My mother rode the bus until she bought a car. They used to take the subway.

With frequency adverbs
Jerry always comes to class on time. At camp, she usually ate breakfast before 7:00. You should never be late for work.

Using Modals in various situations
Requesting Asking Permission Possibility Hinting Other
Can you help me? Can I help you? I can use some help. I can help you.
Could you help me? Could I help you? I could use some help. I could help you.
May I help you? I may need some I may help you.
help. (probably)
I might need some I might help you
help. (probably)
Will you help me? I will need some I will help you.
help. (most likely)
Would you help me? I would need some help. I would help you.
(I guess I probably can’t
do it by myself.)
Would you mind Would you mind if
helping me? I helped yo
Necessity and Obligation
These words express necessity or obligation. They usually indicate that someone else has imposed conditions on us.
Necessity or Obligation
Sample sentences from the article:
Each of us has to finish two thick books….
…he was expected to complete…
Have to / Has to / Had to
Be expected to
These words express necessity or obligation. They usually indicate that someone else has imposed conditions on us. For example:
I have to take out the garbage. (It’s something I must do now. My mother told me to do it.)
I am expected to take out the garbage. (It’s a regular responsibility, a daily chore that my parents have given me.)
A related expression is be supposed to.
I am supposed to clean my room. (I’m required to do it.)
In the negative, these expressions have different meanings. For example:
I don’t have to go to the dance this weekend. (There is no obligation. I can choose to go or not.)
I’m not expected to go to the dance this weekend. (There is no expectation. People will be surprised if I do go.)
I’m not supposed to go to the dance this weekend. (I’m prohibited from going. It would probably be rude for me to go.)
Used To

The expression used to is commonly used when talking about past habits. It means "something was true in the past, but it is not anymore." For example,
I used to live in Toronto, but I don’t anymore. Now I live in Vancouver.
I used to ride a bicycle to school, but I don’t anymore. Now I drive a car.
I used to be married, but I’m not anymore. Now I’m divorced.